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The C4 photosynthetic cycle supercharges photosynthesis by concentrating CO2 around ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase and significantly reduces the oxygenation reaction. Therefore engineering C4 feature into C3 plants has been suggested as a feasible way to increase photosynthesis and yield of C3 plants, such as rice, wheat, and pota...
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... plants such as maize, sorghum, and sugarcane, approximately have 50% higher photosynthesis efficiency than those of C3 plants such as rice, wheat, and potato [1]. This is because the different mechanism of carbon fixation by the two types of photosynthesis, as illustrated in Figure 1. C3 photosynthesis only uses the Calvin cycle for fixing CO 2 catalyzed by ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (Rubisco), which takes place inside of the chloroplast in mesophyll cell. ...
Context 2
... biochemical reactions can be represented mathemati- cally in the form of a stoichiometric matrix S, the flux through all reactions in a network is represented by the vector v, so the system of mass balance equation at steady state is given as Sv = 0. In any realistic large-scale Figure 10 The effect of CO 2 concentration on CO 2 fixation in C3 and C4 model. metabolic model, there are more reactions than com- pounds, so there is no unique solution to this system of equations. ...
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Elementary flux modes (EFMs) emerged as a formal concept to describe metabolic pathways and have become an established tool for constraint-based modeling and metabolic network analysis. EFMs are characteristic (support-minimal) vectors of the flux cone that contains all feasible steady-state flux vectors of a given metabolic network. EFMs account f...
Citations
... The impact of increased atmospheric CO 2 on RUE is considered for the simulation of scenarios under climate change using an exponential function with a species-specific parameter (lower for C4 crops than for C3 crops) (Bergez et al., 2014). According to C. Wang et al. (2012), this function made it possible to account for the impact of increased CO 2 on net photosynthesis. Evapotranspiration was calculated using the Shuttleworth and Wallace model, which allows STICS to additionally account for the effect of rising CO 2 on transpiration efficiency. ...
Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is an important staple crop in Canada. Past studies have forecasted future yield decreases under climate change, which could have major consequences for the economy of some regions. However, limitations in those studies suggest that further investigations are needed. In this study, we simulated the effect of 15 climate change scenarios (classified from low to moderate and high) on potato potential (no N and water stresses) and rainfed (no N stress) yields at 59 locations across Canada representing current and future potential production regions using three crop models (Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer [DSSAT], DeNitrification and DeComposition [DNDC], and Simulateur mulTI‐disciplinaire pour les Cultures Standard [STICS]). Simulation trends were generally consistent across all three crop models and suggested (1) an increase in potential and rainfed yields in the future (up to 4.4 t ha⁻¹ dry matter in 2051–2080 compared with 1991–2020) in the northern regions where production is currently limited, if not impossible, due to a too short growing season; (2) a slight‐to‐moderate increase in potential and rainfed yields in the near future (2021–2050) for the remaining regions with greater increases for drier regions (0.7–3.1 t ha⁻¹) than in wetter regions (0.5–1.4 t ha⁻¹); and (3) stable or lower yields (up to −2.7 t ha⁻¹) in the distant future (2051–2080), for most regions except the northern ones, due to excessively high temperatures, especially in the moderate and high‐climate change scenarios. This study gave the first extensive projections of future potato yield in Canada, including northern locations where production may become possible.
... Photosynthetic organisms can be broadly classified into two types based on how carbohydrates are synthesized from CO 2 , i.e., C3 and C4. C3 photosynthetic plants fix atmospheric CO 2 through Calvin-Benson cycle, catalyzed by the ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) inside the chloroplast of their mesophyll cells (Wang et al., 2012). In general the photosynthesis is partitioned in mesophyll and bundle sheath cells to reduce loss due to photorespiration and increase the efficiency of carbon assimilation (Yin et al., 2011). ...
Italian ryegrass [Lolium perenne ssp. multiflorum (Lam.)] is a problematic C3 annual weed in winter wheat and other crops in the US, continental Europe. The objective of this research was to assess the expression profiles of herbicide target-site genes upon treatment with field rates of ALS- (e.g., chlorsulfuron), PSII- (e.g., atrazine), EPSPS- (e.g., glyphosate), and HPPD- (e.g., mesotrione) inhibitors, respectively in Italian ryegrass. Furthermore, the expression of the genes in chloroplasts that contribute to photosynthesis and CO2 assimilation was also measured in response to these herbicide treatments. LmALS was upregulated (> 3-fold) whereas LmpsbA was downregulated (> 40-fold) at 8 h after chlorsulfuron and atrazine treatments respectively. However, LmEPSPS gene expression remained similar to control levels at 8 h after glyphosate treatment. LmHPPD gene showed > 1-fold higher expression at 8 h after mesotrione treatment. LmCAB, a major component of the photosystem II light-harvesting complex, was downregulated immediately (8 h) after chlorsulfuron, atrazine, glyphosate, and mesotrione treatments respectively. Similarly, LmRubisco, was downregulated after glyphosate and mesotrione treatments. However, LmRubisco was upregulated 0.4-fold after chlorsulfuron treatment and remained unaffected after atrazine treatment. Overall, the data from this study suggest that the treatment with herbicides showed variation in expression of herbicide target genes and those that are involved in the critical photosynthetic pathway.
... The isotopic signatures of OM from C 3 and C 4 plants, stable isotopic compositions within both OM sources can reflect discriminative biosynthetic process (i.e., photosynthesis, Wang et al., 2012;Basu et al., 2015). Except for the E sections, which are characterized by the absence of large river systems, we propose that predominant C 3 plants may be transported via surface runoff through the region's major river systems, such as the Han, Geum, and Youngsan Rivers. ...
Understanding the spatial distribution and sources of sedimentary organic matter (OM) in coastal environments is crucial for effective water quality management and the preservation of ecosystem health. Although extensive research has been conducted on OM dynamics, there remains a gap in understanding the ongoing biogeochemical processes in Korean coastal aquaculture zones, particularly during the summer season. To address this gap, we investigated the spatial variation of water chemical properties and isotopic composition of sedimentary OM to trace the composition, source, and reactivity of mixed OM in aquaculture systems along the Korean coast during the summer season. The isotopic approach was applied to surface sediments from five sections: western (W)-1, W-2, southern (S)-1, S-2, and eastern (E)-1. With respect to increased nutrients (mainly nitrate; 1.2 ± 0.6 mg/L) by dam-water discharge near W sections, our isotopic signatures revealed that a substantial fraction of sedimentary OM might dominantly originated from autochthonous OM source (algae; 36.5%) related to the increase of terrestrial nutrients. Simultaneously, the deposition of allochthonous OM (aquacultural feces; 44%) was predominant in the S-2 sections. The ³⁴S-depleted patterns (approximately -7.2‰) in the S-2 section was indicative of active sulfate reduction occurring at the sedimentary boundary. Therefore, together with the precise determination of ongoing OM, our isotopic results provide valuable insights for effectively managing water-sedimentary qualities under the increase of anthropogenic contamination.
... Maize, the "queen of cereals", is a C4 plant which produces a large amount of biomass in a short duration which in return removes a large quantity of nutrients, considered an exhaustive crop Wang et al., 2012). Additionally, conventional farming practices, practised over the years, often rely on blanket fertilizer applications, disregarding the nuanced needs of the crop and the soil fertility status (Midya et al., 2021). ...
Cereal crop cultivation is one of the essential agricultural practices adopted worldwide to feed human beings, providing dietary energy and food security. Maize is important in different cereal crops' areas, production, and productivity. In high-input-demanding crops like maize, it is mandatory to evaluate the energy input and output along with the economics of the study for better optimization of resources and efficient management of inputs in maize cultivation. The present study was conducted at the Postgraduate Research Farm of Centurion University of Technology and Management, Odisha, India, for two consecutive years during the Rabi season (November-March) of 2021-22 and 2022-23. The experiment was carried out in brown forest soil, sandy loam in texture and a Randomized Complete Block Design with 13 treatments, and each treatment was replicated thrice. The treatments comprise various graded fertilizer levels, precision nitrogen management treatments, decision support systems-based nutrient management and nano nitrogen treatment. The results revealed that among the nutrient management treatments, the highest input energy (21546.8 MJ ha-1) was recorded in the treatment T4: 150% RDF. In terms of output energy and net energy, the highest values were recorded in the treatments T10: CCM-based sufficiency index at 90%-95% and T4: 150% RDF. The energy use efficiency and energy productivity were recorded as the highest values in the treatments T9: CCM-based sufficiency index at 85%-90%. Further, among the nutrient management treatments, the maximum cost of cultivation was incurred in the treatment T4: 150% RDF and it was closely followed by T9: CCM-based sufficiency index at 85%-90% and T10: CCM-based sufficiency index at 90%-95%. The highest gross and net returns were recorded in the treatment T10: CCM-based SI at 90%-95%. In the case of the benefit-cost ratio, the highest value (1.29 and 1.24 for two consecutive years of the study, respectively) was recorded in the treatment T10: CCM-based sufficiency index at 90%-95%. The findings of this study demonstrate the potential of precision nutrient management through the CCM Sufficiency index in Rabi maize cultivation under South Odisha for more sustainability and productivity with the highest profitability.
... In a previous study, it was reported that the coexistence of N forms had the highest photosynthetic rate which is in line with our results ( Figure 2F) and followed by nitrate and ammonical N forms (Li et al., 2013). However, nitrate N form was suppressive for photosynthetic rate in this study which might be due to the different carbon fixation pathways of S. bicolor (C4) and S. canadensis (C3), and C4 plants have higher photosynthetic rates (Smart et al., 2012;Wang et al., 2012;Nawaz et al., 2023). Correlation of different characteristics of S. canadensis and S. bicolor under varied invasion levels and available nitrogen forms. ...
Ecosystem exposure to a biological invasion such as plant invasion could contribute to the extinction of native species and loss of productivity and ecosystem balance. Solidago canadensis (S. canadensis) is a highly invasive species that has formed monocultures in China, Europe, Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. It was designated as a notorious invasive species by the Chinese government. It has adversely affected the agroecosystem’s ability to germinate various plant seeds, including wheat, lettuce, and pepper, which could lead to food insecurity. This study was conducted to control the invasive species S. canadensis by utilizing a competitive species, Sorghum bicolor (S. bicolor) as a cover plant. Sorghum bicolor exudes allelochemicals such as sorgoleone from its roots which suppress the photosystem II activity of nearby plants. The synthesis of sorgoleone depends on a supply of nitrogen. The present study involved the cultivation of S. bicolor alongside the invasive species S. canadensis, with three different invasion levels (high, medium, and low) and three different nitrogen forms (ammonical, nitrate, and combined ammonical and nitrate nitrogen) applied as a modified Hogland solution. S. bicolor expressed higher performance over the invasive species under ammonical and combined nitrogen forms under low and medium invasion levels. Furthermore, even at greater levels of invasion, S. bicolor was not suppressed by S. canadensis. However, the plant height and dry biomass of S. bicolor were significantly high across both nitrogen forms. Leaf area, CO2 uptake, and photosystem II activity of S. canadensis were unable to sustain its growth under the low invasion condition. The plant biomass of S. canadensis was suppressed by up to 80% and the relative dominance index of S. bicolor was 5.22 over S. canadensis. There was a strong correlation between CO2 uptake, leaf area, and plant biomass. Principal component analysis showed that the first four components had a total variance of 96.89%, with principal component 1 (PC1) having the highest eigenvalue at 18.65. These promising findings suggested that S. bicolor, whose high intensity might be employed to control the invasion process for environmental safety, might be able to recover the barren ground that S. canadensis had invaded.
... A schematic figure of C3 and C4 photosynthetic pathways(Wang et al. 2012). ...
... The extent to which plants discriminate against 13 C during photosynthesis depends on their photosynthetic pathways (Chalk et al., 2021). The photosynthetic pathway for C3 plants which goes through the Calvin cycle reduces CO2 to phosphoglycerate, a 3-carbon compound, via the enzyme ribulose-1,5-biphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO) (Wang et al., 2012;Chalk et al., 2021). This process discriminates against 13 CO2 resulting in C3 plants to have lower ẟ 13 C values ranging from -32‰ to -22‰, with an average of -27‰ (Chalk et al., 2021). ...
... This process discriminates against 13 CO2 resulting in C3 plants to have lower ẟ 13 C values ranging from -32‰ to -22‰, with an average of -27‰ (Chalk et al., 2021). The C4 photosynthetic pathway uses the Hatch-Slack pathway C4 where CO2 is reduced to aspartic or malic acids, both 4-carbon compounds, via the enzyme phosphophenyl pyruvate carboxylase (Wang et al., 2012;Chalk et al., 2021). The C4 photosynthetic pathway discriminates against 13 CO2 to a lesser extent than the C3 pathway which causes C4 plants to have higher ẟ 13 C than C3 plants with values ranging from -17‰ to -9‰, and an average value of -13‰ (Chalk et al., 2021). ...
... The -30.40‰ and -28.83‰ ẟ 13 C values in the biomasses in the successional site and willow, respectively are typical of C3 vegetations, whereas the -12.98‰ and -12.80‰ in switchgrass and miscanthus are representative of C4 vegetations (Wang et al., 2012;Chalk et al., 2021). The -30.40‰ to -12.80‰ ẟ 13 C values for the C3 and C4 biomasses in this study fall within the range reported by Oelbermann et al. (2006) andO'Leary (1988). ...
... (i) Transpiration fraction (T/AET, dimensionless): the ratio of transpiration (T, in m 3 /ha), which pertains to the productive portion of actual evapotranspiration (AET), to the total AET (in m 3 /ha) that includes both productive and nonproductive evaporation fluxes. (Sadras et al., 2016;Wang et al., 2012) 0.66 (C3) (b) (Sadras et al., 2016;Wang et al., 2012) 0.82 (C3) (Sadras et al., 2016;Wang et al., 2012) 1.4 (C4) (Sadras et al., 2016; 14 (Hafez et al., 2021) 15 (Amer, 2010;El-Hendawy et al., 2008) a values from other regions since the specific values in Egypt were not available. b taken for Alfalfa since values for berseem could not be found crop production and population growth is essential. ...
... (i) Transpiration fraction (T/AET, dimensionless): the ratio of transpiration (T, in m 3 /ha), which pertains to the productive portion of actual evapotranspiration (AET), to the total AET (in m 3 /ha) that includes both productive and nonproductive evaporation fluxes. (Sadras et al., 2016;Wang et al., 2012) 0.66 (C3) (b) (Sadras et al., 2016;Wang et al., 2012) 0.82 (C3) (Sadras et al., 2016;Wang et al., 2012) 1.4 (C4) (Sadras et al., 2016; 14 (Hafez et al., 2021) 15 (Amer, 2010;El-Hendawy et al., 2008) a values from other regions since the specific values in Egypt were not available. b taken for Alfalfa since values for berseem could not be found crop production and population growth is essential. ...
... (i) Transpiration fraction (T/AET, dimensionless): the ratio of transpiration (T, in m 3 /ha), which pertains to the productive portion of actual evapotranspiration (AET), to the total AET (in m 3 /ha) that includes both productive and nonproductive evaporation fluxes. (Sadras et al., 2016;Wang et al., 2012) 0.66 (C3) (b) (Sadras et al., 2016;Wang et al., 2012) 0.82 (C3) (Sadras et al., 2016;Wang et al., 2012) 1.4 (C4) (Sadras et al., 2016; 14 (Hafez et al., 2021) 15 (Amer, 2010;El-Hendawy et al., 2008) a values from other regions since the specific values in Egypt were not available. b taken for Alfalfa since values for berseem could not be found crop production and population growth is essential. ...
Similar to numerous water- and data-scarce regions, Egypt confronts a critical challenge in sustaining food production for its rapidly growing population. Consequently, the country’s water and land resources are under considerable stress and require careful management. About half of Egypt’s both annually harvested areas and renewable freshwater are allocated for cultivating rice, maize, wheat, and berseem clover. However, the extent to which crop production might be improved and how this would impact future water and land requirements remains poorly understood. We analyzed potential improvements in the production of these crops and quantified their future water and land requirements under different scenarios. Potential improvements were detected through percentile analysis in three remote sensing-derived performance indicators for each crop in the Nile Delta’s Zankalon region: (i) crop yield, (ii) crop water productivity, and (iii) transpiration fraction (transpiration to actual evapotranspiration, T/AET). We applied detected improvements to construct plausible scenarios for Egypt’s water and land requirements to sustain domestic crop production until 2050. Our findings indicate limited potential to improve T/AET (< 4%). However, improvements of up to 27% for crop yields and up to 14% for water productivity are possible. To meet the production targets by 2050, national production must increase by 128, 78, 69, and 71% above the 2016–2020’s average for rice, maize, wheat, and berseem, respectively. Depending on the improvement levels in the developed scenarios, a total harvested land area between 5.3 and 6.4 million ha will be required by 2050, with 18% allocated to rice, 28% to maize, 36% to wheat, and 18% to berseem. Associated freshwater requirements will amount to 59–68 billion cubic meters, divided into 23% for rice, 34% for maize, 28% for wheat, and 15% for berseem. Interventions increasing yields and water productivity will benefit more the summer (rice and maize) than the winter crops (wheat and berseem). We discuss likely interventions for meeting these requirements and for sustaining the supply of these crops in Egypt.
... Although increased CO 2 levels initially boost crop productivity, longer treatments with elevated CO 2 might lead to photosynthetic acclimation, due to increased soluble sugars leading to an imbalanced C:N ratio, accelerated leaf senescence, and/or limited growth rate (Soares et al. 2019;Sheng et al. 2021). Also, response of C3 and C4 crops varies to CO 2 enrichment and as C4 plants have an inbuilt CO 2 concentration mechanism that results in lesser fertilization effect (Majeran et al. 2010;Wang et al. 2012). ...
Global climate change is an issue of concern that may have irreversible long-term impacts on agriculture and allied activities. The constantly increasing atmospheric concentration of Green House Gases (GHG) has led to rise in global mean surface and ocean temperature, erratic and unpredictable rainfall pattern, and increased incidents of extreme weather events. Agriculture is a climate-sensitive sector and is adversely impacted by climate change, both in quantitative as well as qualitative terms. If appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures are not adopted, then the food and nutritional security of the world will be at stake. Climate change impact on agriculture has been well understood, but there are several factors whose impact of agriculture is not fully known till now. The present chapter summarizes the impact of different aspects of climate change on food and nutritional security of major crops of the world. It also dwells into understanding the impact of indeterminate factors and suggests adaptive measures to devise mechanisms for futuristic climate-smart agriculture.
... Contudo, estes resultados evidenciam que a água foi o fator limitante para a expressão das taxas fotossintéticas ótimas entre as espécies, alertando sobre a busca por melhoramentos genéticos que otimizem a eficiência do uso da água, principalmente para países em condições de baixa disponibilidade hídrica. Essa otimização deve priorizar não só o jiló, mas as espécies do tipo C3 em geral, as quais representam por volta de 85% das espécies de plantas superiores (YAMORI et al., 2014), e a possibilidade de manipulação do maquinário fotossintetizante C4 para plantas C3 ainda permanece um enorme desafio (Wang et al., 2012). ...
... Provavelmente esse padrão ocorreu devido a diminuição da disponibilidade de CO2 resultante do fechamento estomático conforme o aumento da restrição hídrica, afetando diretamente as taxas da fotossíntese(Bansal et al., 2019). Estes resultados eram esperados tendo em vista que plantas do tipo C4 como milho possuem cerca de 50% de eficiência fotossintética maior que plantas do tipo C3(Wang et al., 2012), devido às diferenças no mecanismo de fixação de carbono nos dois tipos de fotossíntese.Contudo, pôde-se perceber que as taxas fotossintéticas do milho foram próximas às do jiló entre cada tratamento, o que provavelmente ocorreu em detrimento do cultivo em igual condições de luminosidade e temperatura na casa de vegetação. No entanto, para o tratamento sob a maior restrição hídrica (50% da umidade do solo -T1), o milho fotossintetizou 21,94 µmol CO2 m -2 s -1 , enquanto o jiló apenas 20,57 µmol CO2 m -2 s -1 para o mesmo tratamento (Figura 7). ...
O déficit hídrico é um dos fatores mais impactantes que alteram seriamente a fisiologia das plantas, levando finalmente ao declínio da produtividade das culturas. Dessa maneira, é fundamental a compreensão do comportamento morfofisiológico das plantas com metabolismo C3 e C4 em relação a diferentes níveis de déficit hídrico para que estratégias de manejo sejam desenvolvidas. Portanto, avaliamos o impacto do estresse hídrico induzido nas características morfofisiológicas de plantas de milho (Zea mays L.) e jiló (Solanum gilo Raddi). O experimento foi conduzido em delineamento inteiramente casualizado, sendo os tratamentos constituídos por combinação fatorial de duas espécies de plantas, milho (C4) e Jiló (C3), e três níveis de umidade do solo T1 (50%), T2 (65%) e T3 (90%) com quatro repetições. Foram avaliadas as variáveis de crescimento, relações alométricas e aspectos fotossintéticos. Verificamos que o regime hídrico induzido severo afetou significativamente a germinação, emergência, crescimento e estádios fenológicos, além de causar decréscimo na taxa fotossintética nas duas espécies estudadas, no entanto, com maior impacto no jiló. O milho (C4) desempenhou maior eficiência fotossintética em relação ao jiló (C3), mesmo em condições de regime hídrico severo.