Figure 5 - uploaded by Kevin R Brooks
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A new perspective. (a) Brunelleschi's experiment, confirming the correspondence between the visual scene and his own perspective drawing, with the use of a (removable) mirror and a small aperture in the picture, which faced away from the observer. (b) Brunelleschi's view of the Florence Baptistery, demonstrating 2-point perspective. (c) One of the first known coherent perspective images: Masaccio's The Holy Trinity.
Source publication
The history of the expression of three-dimensional structure in art can be traced from the use of occlusion in Palaeolithic cave paintings, through the use of shadow in classical art, to the development of perspective during the Renaissance. However, the history of the use of stereoscopic techniques is controversial. Although the first undisputed s...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... common story involves Italian engineer Filippo Brunelleschi who is purported to have conducted perspective experiments between 1401 and 1425 (Edgerton, 2006;Kubovy, 1986;Vasari, 1965). Brunelleschi's empirical observations (e.g., concerning the convergence of each set of parallel lines in the image to a unique vanishing point, as in Figure 5(b)) led to predictions in the form of two ''perspective panels,'' one depicting the Florentine Baptistery, that should correspond to the scene as viewed from the same vantage point. These predictions were confirmed by viewing the Baptistery through a small sighting aperture in the drawing, which faced away from the artist. ...
Context 2
... predictions were confirmed by viewing the Baptistery through a small sighting aperture in the drawing, which faced away from the artist. The interjection of a mirror into the line of sight allowed the viewer to alternate between the scene and the drawing, which were found to correspond closely ( Figure 5(a) and (b)). Unfortunately, Brunelleschi's perspective panels have long been lost. ...
Citations
... Depth cues can be either geometric (e.g., distance, direction) or featural (e.g., color, texture) (Kimura et al., 2017) and further categorized into primary cues (stereopsis and parallax) and secondary cues (motion parallax, linear perspective, occlusion, size, texture, shading and shadow, light, color, among others) (Kelsey, 1993;Khuu et al., 2014). Provided by binocular vision, the binocular depth cues of stereopsis, parallax, and binocular disparity (the difference in the positions of binocularly visible objects) are deemed by many scholars the most relevant depth cues, although their relative importance is still unknown (England et al., 1992;Hubona et al., 1997;Hubona et al., 1999;Brooks, 2017). ...
... Thus, the perception of threedimensionality through depth representation would influence presence in virtual environments (Fig. 2) in the same way it influences their realism level (Bertol, 1997). The expectation about such association dates back to the early Renaissance when perspective paintings on walls at natural scale (a depth representation technique) promoted a strong psychological response where the viewer would feel transported into (or present in) the virtual space created by the painting (Bertol, 1997;Brooks, 2017). One must perceive the three-dimensional space portrayed in that representation to perceive oneself in the place depicted. ...
Identifying and characterizing the factors that affect presence in virtual environments has been acknowledged as a critical step to improving Virtual Reality (VR) applications in the built environment domain. In the search to identify those factors, the research objective was to test whether three-dimensional perception affects presence in virtual environments. A controlled within-group experiment utilizing perception and presence questionnaires was conducted, followed by data analysis, to test the hypothesized unidirectional association between three-dimensional perception and presence in two different virtual environments (non-immersive and immersive). Results indicate no association in either of the systems studied, contrary to the assumption of many scholars in the field but in line with recent studies on the topic. Consequently, VR applications in architectural design may not necessarily need to incorporate advanced stereoscopic visualization techniques to deliver highly immersive experiences, which may be achieved by addressing factors other than depth realism. As findings suggest that the levels of presence experienced by users are not subject to the display mode of a 3D model (whether immersive or non-immersive display), it may still be possible for professionals involved in the review of 3D models (e.g., designers, contractors, clients) to experience high levels of presence through non-stereoscopic VR systems provided that other presence-promoting factors are included.
... Despite the two dimensional identity in the Egyptian art, the analysis of the research case studies shows various basic attempts from the Egyptian artist to imply depth, whether it was intended or as a result of copying the nature infront of him in his drawings -in a very basic form using techniques that exploit the well-known monocular cues of depth-. (Brooks K. R. (2017). ...
... (Okoshi, T., 1976). Monocular cues -in their basic form-used by the Egyptian artist, influencing a sense of perspective to the viewer to be judged (Brooks K. R. (2017) were eventually harmonized in the geometrical system of the Egyptian art. The most interesting -from a theoretical point of view-are overlapping and occlusion, relative size, gradient and simple shading (J. ...
... This gives the painting a sense of atmospheric perspective (also known as aerial perspective) refers to the effect the atmosphere has on the appearance of an object as it is viewed from a distance. In art, and especially painting, artists attempt to mimic this effect as a way of creating depth or distance (three dimension) on an otherwise two dimensional (flat) surface (Brooks, 2017), As shown in the painting "Mountains and Pines in Spring" by Mi Fu, belonging to the Song Dynasty (Fig. 3). In the painting of "Mountains and Pines in Spring", the wonderful mountain valleys are surrounded by cloud in the background and the trees on the hills in the foreground has divided this picture into two sections. ...
Cultural relations between Persia and China grew even closer after the Mongol conquest of both countries in the 13th century, when the Īl-Khānids came to power. Mongol rulers were also affected by Chinese art and cultural heritage; it then transferred to Iran by political, commercial, and then cultural relations. So they prepared the conditions for mutual artistic inspirations, especially in painting. Since the illustrated Persian paintings clearly demonstrate foreign influences, including the culture of different nations, significantly China's cultural impact on Iran, the need for this investigation becomes more apparent in the period.
... Vision scientists and art historians have devoted a large body of research to the rendering and the perception of depth in art and its revealing cues (Brooks, 2017;Cavanagh, 1999;Pepperell and Ruschkowski, 2013;Saxena et al., 2008;Spillmann, 2007;Zimmerman et al., 1995), but paid less attention to the rendering of materials (Dupré, 2011;Gombrich, 1976). Gombrich (1976) advised the art historians to take interest in the depiction of the appearances of materials, to connect styles and their evolution of formulae to render reality. ...
Dutch Golden Age painters could convincingly depict all sorts of materials. How did they do it and how do we perceive them as such, are questions that only recently have started to be addressed by art historians and vision scientists, respectively. This paper aims to discuss how a booklet of pictorial recipes written by the Dutch painter Willem Beurs in 1692 constitutes an index of key image features for material depiction and perception. Beurs' recipes connect different materials according to their shared visual features, and offer the profiles, i.e., the optimal combinations, of these features to render a wide range of materials. By combining representation and perception, the knowledge of painters about the depiction of materials can help to understand the mechanisms of the visual system for material perception, and these in turn can explain the pictorial features that make the pictorial representation of materials so convincing.
... One major topic in this regard, is depth perception and its revealing cues. Our ability to perceive 3D space and objects in 2D representations is certainly remarkable, and has been thoroughly investigated [160][161][162][163][164]. In the pictorial space, monocular cues such as occlusion, texture gradient, linear perspective and relative size, are responsible for depth perception [165][166][167][168][169]. An additional source for perceiving depth, can be found in shades and shadows. ...
This thesis explores convincing stuff depicted in 17th century paintings, with the primary aim of understanding their visual perception. ”Stuff” is the term first introduced by Edward Adelson in 2001 to differentiate materials from objects, and to call attention on the research gap in material perception. In an interesting parallel, the representation of materials in paintings constitutes a knowledge gap in art history as well. Both gaps have only recently been recognized and started to be addressed in their respective research fields. In this thesis, representation and perception come together to create a virtuous circle in which the knowledge of painters about the representation of materials is used to understand the mechanisms of the visual system for material perception, and this is in turn used to explain the pictorial features that make the representation of materials so convincing. The common thread used here to connect representation and perception, is ”The big world painted small”, a long-forgotten booklet of pictorial recipes written by the Dutch painter Willem Beurs in 1692. We argue that this book represents an index of key features for material perception, that means an index of image features that always work as perceptual cues regardless of the illumination and the viewing conditions of the depicted scene. The main research objective of this dissertation is: To understand the convincing depiction and perception of materials in 17th century paintings, connecting the image features found in paintings and listed by Beurs to their role as perceptual cues. In order to achieve this objective, we employed a novel, interdisciplinary research approach, merging science of human and computer vision, technical art history, and the historical textual source of Beurs.
... This gives the painting a sense of atmospheric perspective (also known as aerial perspective) refers to the effect the atmosphere has on the appearance of an object as it is viewed from a distance. In art, and especially painting, artists attempt to mimic this effect as a way of creating depth or distance (three dimension) on an otherwise two dimensional (flat) surface (Brooks, 2017), As shown in the painting "Mountains and Pines in Spring" by Mi Fu, belonging to the Song Dynasty (Fig. 3). In the painting of "Mountains and Pines in Spring", the wonderful mountain valleys are surrounded by cloud in the background and the trees on the hills in the foreground has divided this picture into two sections. ...
Cultural relations between Persia and China grew even closer after the Mongol conquest of both countries in the 13th century, when the Īl-Khānids came to power. Mongol rulers were also affected by Chinese art and cultural heritage; it then transferred to Iran by political, commercial, and then cultural relations. So they prepared the conditions for mutual artistic inspirations, especially in painting. Since the illustrated Persian paintings clearly demonstrate foreign influences, including the culture of different nations, significantly China's cultural influence on Iran, the need for this investigation becomes more apparent in the period. The aim of this study is to analyze and describe the manifestation of landscape in the Chinese and the Īl-Khānids paintings and focuses on the study of the similarities and differences of these styles and symbols. For this purpose, two main elements have to be investigated: the elements of natural landscape in Chinese and Persian paintings in the Yuan and Song/ Il-Khanids eras and the transmission of similar features. The authors suggest that the Cultural Transmission (CT) is both a creativity and genius development factor and a factor in art social integration; for that reason, it has an importance. The result shows there were two ways to convey the style and techniques of Chinese landscape painting. One way was to copy blindly, and another way was a combination of deformed elements and derivation of indigenous features in paintings.
... Our perception of depth arises from both monoscopic (2D) and stereoscopic (3D) depth cues. Monoscopic depth cues include shading, relative size, occlusion, and motion [1,3]. Shading an S3D line drawing can improve depth perception, but the amount of improvement is limited for images with rich detail [16]. ...
We present a method to produce stylized drawings from stereoscopic 3D (S3D) images. Taking advantage of the information provided by the disparity map, we extract object contours and determine their visibility. The discovered contours are stylized and warped to produce an S3D line drawing. Since the produced line drawing can be ambiguous in shape, we add stylized shading to provide monocular depth cues. We investigate using both consistently rendered shading and inconsistently rendered shading in order to determine the importance of lines and shading to depth perception.
... Throughout the long history of pictorial art, attempts have been made to introduce the appearance of depth with marks on otherwise flat surfaces (see Brooks, 2017). The representation of pictorial depth was transformed by the announcement of the stereoscope (Wheatstone, 1838) and the depth that could be seen when two slightly dissimilar pictures are viewed, one to each eye. ...
... While this has been questioned on art historical grounds (Wallis, 2015), similar claims for works by Jacopo Chimenti and Leonardo da Vinci have been rejected on experimental grounds. The controversy over whether two drawings from around 1600 by Chimenti were stereoscopic stirred the world of science in the 19th century (see Wade, 2003); the doubt placed on the proposal at the time has been supported by psychophysical experiments by Brooks (2017). Brooks has also found little evidence to support suggestions by Carbon and Hesslinger (2013) that two versions of Leonardo's Mona Lisa were intended for stereoscopic viewing. ...
Pictorial art is typically viewed with two eyes, but it is not binocular in the sense that it requires two eyes to appreciate the art. Two-dimensional representational art works allude to depth that they do not contain, and a variety of stratagems is enlisted to convey the impression that surfaces on the picture plane are at different distances from the viewer. With the invention of the stereoscope by Wheatstone in the 1830s, it was possible to produce two pictures with defined horizontal disparities between them to create a novel impression of depth. Stereoscopy and photography were made public at about the same time and their marriage was soon cemented; most stereoscopic art is now photographic. Wheatstone sought to examine stereoscopic depth without monocular pictorial cues. He was unable to do this, but it was achieved a century later by Julesz with random-dot stereograms The early history of non-photographic stereoscopic art is described as well as reference to some contemporary works. Novel stereograms employing a wider variety of carrier patterns than random dots are presented as anaglyphs; they show modulations of pictorial surface depths as well as inclusions within a binocular picture.
... In the period following 40 thousand years ago the Neanderthals were rapidly replaced in Europe, albeit with some minor gene exchange [117], by invading Homo sapiens whose lives showed unprecedented cultural and technological sophistication. While still itinerant huntergatherers, these anatomically and behaviorally distinctive new humans populated the landscape in higher densities and brought with them the symbolic tradition of narrative cave art with use of pictorial depth cues in integrated compositions of great complexity and beauty [118]. This innovative practice of creating pictures from the imagination-"the mind's eye"-is the most powerful indicator we have of the awakening of the modern sensibility, with its profusion of abstract but clearly meaning-laden signs in addition to the sophisticated animal images famous from such localities as Chauvet and Lascaux [73]. ...
The genetic basis for the emergence of creativity in modern humans remains a mystery despite sequencing the genomes of chimpanzees and Neanderthals, our closest hominid relatives. Data-driven methods allowed us to uncover networks of genes distinguishing the three major systems of modern human personality and adaptability: emotional reactivity, self-control, and self-awareness. Now we have identified which of these genes are present in chimpanzees and Neanderthals. We replicated our findings in separate analyses of three high-coverage genomes of Neanderthals. We found that Neanderthals had nearly the same genes for emotional reactivity as chimpanzees, and they were intermediate between modern humans and chimpanzees in their numbers of genes for both self-control and self-awareness. 95% of the 267 genes we found only in modern humans were not protein-coding, including many long-non-coding RNAs in the self-awareness network. These genes may have arisen by positive selection for the characteristics of human well-being and behavioral modernity, including creativity, prosocial behavior, and healthy longevity. The genes that cluster in association with those found only in modern humans are over-expressed in brain regions involved in human self-awareness and creativity, including late-myelinating and phylogenetically recent regions of neocortex for autobiographical memory in frontal, parietal, and temporal regions, as well as related components of cortico-thalamo-ponto-cerebellar-cortical and cortico-striato-cortical loops. We conclude that modern humans have more than 200 unique non-protein-coding genes regulating co-expression of many more protein-coding genes in coordinated networks that underlie their capacities for self-awareness, creativity, prosocial behavior, and healthy longevity, which are not found in chimpanzees or Neanderthals.
... Üblicherweise wird die Renaissance als Epoche betrachtet, in der Maler wie Leonardo da Vinci die Perspektivzeichnung zur Kunstform entwickelte und Gemälde eine räumliche Staffelung von Ebenen entwickelten. DochBrooks (2017) zeigt, dass bereits frühe Höhlenzeichnungen Tiefeninformationen beinhalteten und die Menschen offensichtlich immer schon Tiefeninformationen in zweidimensionalen Darstellungen dekodieren konnten.Die räumliche Modellierung der Wahrnehmung wird durch eine stereoskopische Darbietung unterstützt: Die beiden Augen liefern zwei, minimal unterschiedliche Bilder, aus denen der bottom-up Prozess die Tiefeninformation errechnet(Hibbard, Haines, & Hornsey, 2017). Entsprechend unterstützt die stereoskopische Präsentation der Bilder über eine Brille das Raumerleben maßgeblich. ...
Verfügbar unter https://learninglab.uni-due.de/publikationen/13437
