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A neighborhood in Worcester, Massachusetts, USA (A) before and (B) after removal of trees in an effort to eradicate an outbreak of Asian longhorned beetle. Photo credit: Dermott O'Donnell.
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We review and synthesize information on invasions of nonnative forest insects and diseases in the United States, including their ecological and economic impacts, pathways of arrival, distribution within the United States, and policy options for reducing future invasions. Nonnative insects have accumulated in United States forests at a rate of ∼2.5...
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... settings (e.g., Holmes et al. 2010, Kovacs et al. 2011a). In fact, the aggregate economic impacts on residential property value over the past few decades have sub- stantially exceeded impacts on the timber sector ( Aukema et al. 2011). Losses in private property values result from a change in the perceived aesthetic quality of the property (Fig. 4), plus any costs associated with homeowner treatments to protect tree health or with the removal and replacement of dead trees. For invasive pests that cause rapidly expanding and spatially exten- sive tree mortality, such as the EAB, the costs associ- ated with tree removal, protection and replacement by residential property owners may ...
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... Non-coding RNAs are attractive targets for new applications for forestry. For example, RNA-based methods could be applied to one of the major threats to forest, invasive pathogens and insects (e.g., Lovett et al., 2016). Spray Induced Gene Silencing (SIGS) uses exogenously applied double stranded RNAs (dsRNAs) designed to trigger RNAi-based silencing of essential genes in pathogen or insect pests. ...
Annual model and crop species have been the subject of most epigenetic studies for plants. In contrast to annuals, forest trees persist on natural landscapes and experience environmental variation within and across seasons, years, and decades or even centuries. Most forest trees species are undomesticated and typically grown on variable landscapes with no irrigation or application of agricultural chemicals. Forest trees must thus rely on their inherent ability to alter growth and physiology to mitigate the effects of changing abiotic and biotic stressors. Like other plants, trees have mechanisms encoded in their genomic DNA sequence that can respond directly to stress events such as drought or heat. Hypothetically, it would be highly advantageous to join these mechanisms with a dynamic “memory” of past exposure to stress. It is now well established that annual model and crop plants can establish epigenetic-based memory of stress events that support more rapid and robust response to stress in the future. Here, evidence is discussed for epigenetic regulation and “memory” in two fundamental biological processes in trees, wood formation and abiotic stress response. Wood formation is an ideal trait for epigenetic research in trees, as wood formation is highly responsive to environmental conditions and includes multiple rapid developmental changes as cells adopt distinct fates within complex tissues. This is followed by a discussion of research needs that would provide the foundation for new epigenetic applications for forestry.
... The need for a more evolutionarily grounded definition for host breadth becomes heightened when evaluating novel interactions resulting from the introduction of non-native insect species, some of which can devastate forest ecosystems (Lovett et al. 2016). Novel plant-insect interactions often have tremendous negative influences on agricultural production, forest management and ecosystem services (Berenbaum and Zangerl 2008;Pearse and Rosenheim 2020). ...
... Novel plant-insect interactions often have tremendous negative influences on agricultural production, forest management and ecosystem services (Berenbaum and Zangerl 2008;Pearse and Rosenheim 2020). In North America, a small number of non-native, invasive tree pests, such as spongy moth [Lymantria dispar dispar (L.)], hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae Annand) and emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire), have caused massive ecological and economic damage (Lovett et al. 2016;Fei et al. 2019). Models that predict impact risk for non-native insects that specialise on coniferous trees (Mech et al. 2019;Uden et al. 2023) or a single family of woody angiosperms (Schulz et al. 2021) have been developed; however, predicting the impact of species with broader host breadth has yet to be achieved. ...
... However, the assumptions underlying empirical and theoretical approaches to predicting impact of invasive species have remained largely untested (Raffa et al. 2023). As such, it is imperative to understand the factors that drive non-native species success, and hence, the severe economic and ecological costs they can exert (Lovett et al. 2016;Zenni et al. 2021). Through our effort to predict non-native insect impacts, we found that insect traits, tree traits and tree relatedness had varying significance within each of the three host breadth category models that we developed (Figure 1). ...
Herbivores are commonly classified as host specialists or generalists for various purposes, yet the definitions of these terms, and their intermediates, are often imprecise and ambiguous. We quantified host breadth for 240 non‐native, tree‐feeding insects in North America using phylogenetic diversity and demonstrated that a partitioning of host breadth: (1) causes 67% of non‐native insects to shift from a generalist to specialist category, (2) displays a reduction in host breadth from the native to introduced range, (3) identifies an inflection point in a model predicting the likelihood of non‐native insect ecological impact, with a corresponding change in behaviour associated with specialists versus generalists and (4) enables three models for strong prediction of whether a non‐native forest insect will cause high impacts. Together, these results highlight the primacy of how herbivore host recognition and plant defences mediate whether novel host interactions will result in high impact after invasion. image
... Other prevention or mitigation approaches have gained traction in recent years. The planting of sentinel gardens and targeted monitoring using biological attractants (such as insect pheromones and plant stress kairomones) as part of an early detection rapid response network both offer the potential to detect nascent invasive insect populations 135,136 . Technological approaches are also in development for monitoring and mitigation purposes. ...
... Invasive species can have a significant impact on the environment, economy, and human health and safety (Liebhold et al. 1995, Holmes et al. 2009, Lovett et al. 2016, Diagne et al. 2021. Often a consequence of international trade (Krishnankutty et al. 2020, Greenwood et al. 2023, invasive insects such as the spongy moth (Lymantria dispar L., Lepidoptera: Erebidae), hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae Annand, Hemiptera: Adelgidae), and emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire, Coleoptera: Buprestidae) are serious threats to eastern North American forests (Davidson et al. 1999, Herms and McCullough 2014, Lovett et al. 2016, Ellison et al. 2018. ...
... Invasive species can have a significant impact on the environment, economy, and human health and safety (Liebhold et al. 1995, Holmes et al. 2009, Lovett et al. 2016, Diagne et al. 2021. Often a consequence of international trade (Krishnankutty et al. 2020, Greenwood et al. 2023, invasive insects such as the spongy moth (Lymantria dispar L., Lepidoptera: Erebidae), hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae Annand, Hemiptera: Adelgidae), and emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire, Coleoptera: Buprestidae) are serious threats to eastern North American forests (Davidson et al. 1999, Herms and McCullough 2014, Lovett et al. 2016, Ellison et al. 2018. Invasive species cause widespread harm to ecosystems by killing or outcompeting native species (Liebhold et al. 1995, Moser et al. 2009) and can generate significant economic and ecological losses both directly by their presence, and indirectly by the cost of management and eradication (Holmes et al. 2009). ...
A new population of the Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis Motschulsky), an invasive species in North America since 1996, was discovered in Charleston County, South Carolina, in 2020. This population is the furthest south Asian longhorned beetle has established in North America. Previous models only estimate development time at this latitude; as such, we examined Asian longhorned beetle phenology in this novel climate. Over 24 consecutive months, we collected 153 eggs, 878 larvae, 37 pupae, and 1 unemerged adult (1,009 total specimens) from the federal quarantine zone in South Carolina and used larval head capsule width to determine development rate and voltinism. The presence of Asian longhorned beetle adults was determined via visual field observations. Asian longhorned beetle in South Carolina appears to have a synchronous univoltine life cycle, in contrast to populations in the northern United States and Canada that typically develop in 2–3 yr. This information will be useful for future model development to determine Asian longhorned beetle life cycles, for implementing novel management methods, and will aid in predictions to benefit visual survey efficacy.
... We developed this phylogenetic epidemiology approach to predicting multi-host pest spread out of an urgent management need for accessible decision-making tools that capture the biological realism of pests that are not host specialists 53,54 . Both range shifts driven by climate change and accidental introductions of these pests into areas outside their place of origin have resulted in novel species interactions that cause irreversible ecosystem changes with consequent ecological, social, and economic harm [55][56][57] . Such predictive tools are crucial for developing effective response policies because multi-host pests are more prevalent than host specialists 2,3,6 and they are responsible for a large proportion of the most threatening emerging infectious diseases to plants, humans, and wildlife 1,53,58 . ...
Forecasting emergent pest spread is paramount to mitigating their impacts. For host-specialized pests, epidemiological models of spread through a single host population are well developed. However, most pests attack multiple host species; the challenge is predicting which communities are most vulnerable to infestation. Here, we develop a phylogenetically-informed approach to predict establishment of emergent multi-host pests across heterogeneous landscapes. We model a beetle-pathogen symbiotic complex on trees, introduced from Southeast Asia to California. The phyloEpi model for likelihood of establishment was predicted from the phylogenetic composition of woody species in the invaded community and the influence of temperature on beetle reproduction. Plant communities dominated by close relatives of known epidemiologically critical hosts were four times more likely to become infested than communities with more distantly related species. Where microclimate favored beetle reproduction, pest establishment was greater than expected based only on species composition. We applied this phyloEpi model to predict infestation risk in California using weather data and complete tree inventories from 9262 1-km² grids in 170 cities. Regions in the state predicted with low likelihood of infestation were confirmed by independent monitoring. Analysts can adapt these phylogenetic ecology tools to predict spread of any multi-host pest in novel habitats.
... Over the last few decades, many 'new' plant pathogens have emerged. Some of these pathogens were previously known but appear to be becoming more severe, while others are appearing in ecosystems where they were previously unknown or undetected (Ennos, 2015;Lovett et al., 2016). Guégan et al. (2023) emphasised that much of the research on plant pathogens has focused on agricultural systems (e.g., economic impacts and implications for food security). ...
... Our simulations suggest declines in aboveground carbon storage under kauri loss of c. 50 % relative to a nodisease control. As Lovett et al. (2016) commented, the trajectory of change in C storage after a pathogen outbreak will depend on the rate at which individuals succumb to new pathogens and the species' contribution to the C pool. Previous localised studies identified A. australis as responsible for a significant fraction of total standing C, especially in older forests (Silvester and Orchard, 1999), so our estimates, while low in absolute terms, are plausible in a relative sense. ...
... That means in the loss of about 4 million trees per year (Nowak and Greenfield, 2012) due to damage caused by invasive insect species (Lovett et al., 2016). ...
The invasive species called the cypress jewel beetle, Lampodila festiva Linné (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) is a major pest in urban areas, infesting the white cedar, Thuja occidentalis Linné (Cupressales: Cupressaceae), in parks, gardens, nurseries and hedges. The insects develops in wood, affecting the trees by galleries made by larvae inside. The invasion of the beetle was growing faster in the last years, migrating from its native area of Mediteranean region, including parts of Northern Africa, to the Southern and Western Europe, then in the Central and Eastern countries. The studies were carried out in 2017-2024 in Cluj-Napoca (Romania), in different area of the city (11 locations) and in laboratory conditions. The insects have been observed and collected from the colonized plants of white cedar, Thuja occidentalis Linné and then photographed and studied with the corresponding description.
... Typically developed in one region, which may not be the first to have been impacted, IPM programs are often adopted by other regions in response to the shared pest. Reflecting the changing regulatory environment and societal expectations, most strategies to mitigate forest pest impacts now combine multiple tactics to identify, assess, mitigate, and monitor risks that can contribute to outbreaks and damage (ie risk-based management; Lovett et al. 2016). This approach contrasts with a historically more reactive style of management in which control tactics were implemented once outbreaks and/or damage occurred. ...
Globalization is increasing the threat of invasive forest insects to ecosystems. Control efforts against the same pest species progressively occur across distant jurisdictions as integrated pest management (IPM) programs or tactics developed in one region are adopted by another region. This knowledge exchange accelerates responses and collaboration; however, transplanted IPM programs can overlook preexisting or emerging differences between regions, which may explain their varying success. These differences include biological variation in the pest system, environmental conditions, issues of scale and capacity of the response, regulatory environment, and cultural context. We examine the role of these factors in the adoption and outcomes of IPM programs, drawing from case studies and an online survey of forestry IPM experts. To facilitate regional adaptation of IPM programs during their adoption and implementation in new regions, we propose an evaluation framework and recommend approaches to not only reduce risks but also maximize uptake, efficacy, and resilience.
... Although the implementation of international ballast water policy (International Maritime Organization 2004) and biofouling guidance (International Maritime Organization 2023) stand to greatly reduce unintentional introductions of aquatic invasive species via ballast water and ship hulls, invasive species can still travel intercontinentally aboard ships as goods or passengers (e.g., Tatem 2009). Wooden shipping materials can harbor non-native insects and pathogens (Lovett et al. 2016), trade goods can host invasive species, and live trade can directly spread invasive species (Liebhold et al. 2012;Pagnucco et al. 2015;Lockwood et al. 2019). Climate change is also affecting climate similarity, or climate matching, between trade partner regions, creating additional pressure on an already insufficiently regulated source of intentional and unintentional introductions (Lovett et al. 2016). ...
... Wooden shipping materials can harbor non-native insects and pathogens (Lovett et al. 2016), trade goods can host invasive species, and live trade can directly spread invasive species (Liebhold et al. 2012;Pagnucco et al. 2015;Lockwood et al. 2019). Climate change is also affecting climate similarity, or climate matching, between trade partner regions, creating additional pressure on an already insufficiently regulated source of intentional and unintentional introductions (Lovett et al. 2016). For example, freshwater and terrestrial ecoregions of Europe and North America are predicted to become more similar with climate change and thus more vulnerable to invasions by species originating in either region (Hubbard, Drake, and Mandrak 2024). ...
... Yet, global capacity for proactive policies to prevent novel introductions of invasive species lags behind reactive measures (Early et al. 2016), and the onus for regulation and preventative action falls more frequently on the point of arrival than the point of origin (Keller and Perrings 2011). At the point of origin, measures to prevent the export of species with the potential to be invasive elsewhere include phytosanitary standards; these might best be incentivized by importing partners (Lovett et al. 2016). The point of arrival can further prevent novel introductions through border patrol actions such as standards for the treatment of goods and materials (Haack et al. 2014), and EDRR (Lovett et al. 2016;Reaser et al. 2020). ...
Addressing the global challenges of climate change and biotic invasions requires understanding their interactions and implications for natural resource management. To facilitate and support invasive species management in a changing climate, we review how climate change and invasions interact to impact the planning, action, and outcomes of invasive species management. Climate change is facilitating the introduction of new potential invasive species and altering pathways of introduction and spread, with implications for which species natural resource managers need to assess, monitor, and target. Climate‐driven shifts in invasive species phenology require more flexible management timelines. Climate change may reduce the efficacy and feasibility of current treatment methods and make native ecosystems more vulnerable to invasion. Additionally, disturbance caused by extreme climate events can compound the spread and impacts of biological invasions, making invasive species management a necessary part of extreme event preparation and response planning. As a solution to these challenges, we propose climate‐smart invasive species management, which we define as the approaches that managers and decision‐makers can take to address the interactive effects of climate change and invasions. Climate‐smart invasive species management includes considering potential shifts in species ranges, abundances, and impacts to inform monitoring, treatment, and policies to prevent new invasive species. Climate‐smart management may also involve adjusting the timing and type of treatment to maintain efficacy, promoting resilient ecosystems through climate‐smart restoration, and considering the effects of climate change when setting management goals. Explicitly considering the interactions of climate change and biological invasions within organizational decision‐making and policy can lead to more effective management and promote more resilient landscapes.
... Local and broadscale clustering of WOM in this region may suggest areas with soil compaction, low moisture levels, and specific species interactions leading to tree mortality [78,79]. For instance, studies on WOM at the local scale have documented that exotic insect pests were invading the tree trunk and causing defoliation resulting in low abundance and distribution of white oaks in the affected areas [80]. In addition, local scale clustering may reveal that site scale processes such as self-thinning in white oak stands accumulate throughout the region, which may have resulted in region-wide WOM in clusters [81,82]. ...
... Similarly, random patterns at a broad scale may reflect sporadic pest outbreaks in the region, particularly when these biotic factors do not uniformly affect the white oak forest canopy. For instance, a study by Lovett et al. [80] on gypsy moths and other pests reported that outbreaks may not create consistent clustering but rather impact white oaks in random locations, depending on pest populations and forest composition. ...
White oak mortality is a significant concern in forest ecosystems due to its impact on biodiversity and ecosystem functions. Understanding the factors influencing white oak mortality is crucial for effective forest management and conservation efforts. In this study, we aimed to investigate the spatial pattern of WOM rates across the eastern US and explore the underlying processes behind the observed spatial patterns. Multicycle forest inventory and analysis data were compiled to capture all white oak plots. WOM data were selected across plot systems that utilized declining basal areas between two periods. Ripley's K function was used to study the spatial pattern of WOM rates. Results showed clustered patterns of WOM rates at local and broad scales that may indicate stand-level competition and regional variables affecting white oaks' dynamics across southern and northern regions. Results also indicated random patterns at broad scales, suggesting variations in topographic and hydrological conditions across the south and northern regions. However, the central region indicated both clustered and random patterns at the local scale that might be associated with inter-species competition and the possibility of environmental heterogeneity, respectively. Furthermore, uniform patterns of WOM rate at a broad scale across all regions might suggest regions with spatially homogeneous environmental factors acting on the dynamics of white oaks. This research might be helpful in identifying impacted areas of white oaks at varying scales. Future research is needed to comprehensively assess biotic and abiotic factors at various spatial scales aimed at mitigating WOM.
