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A. Solanum campylacanthum inflorescences (Kenya - Vorontsova et al. 157); B. Solanum incanum immature fruit (Kenya – Vorontsova et al. 203); C. Solanum insanum fruit cross-section (China – Wang et al. 2047); D. Solanum insanum inflorescence with several hermaphrodite flowers (China – Wang et al. 2039); E. Solanum linnaeanum with yellow mature and mottled green immature fruit, note highly dissected leaves (Spain - Knapp IM-10096); F. Solanum melongena flower with duplicated parts (China – Wang et al. 2042). Photographs: A, B taken M.S. Vorontsova; C, D, E, F taken by S. Knapp.
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Background
The common or brinjal eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) belongs to the Leptostemonum Clade (the “spiny” solanums) of the species-rich genus Solanum (Solanaceae). Unlike most of the genus, the eggplant and its relatives are from the Old World; most eggplant wild relatives are from Africa. An informal system for naming eggplant wild relative...
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Cuzi scarlet eggplant (Solanum aethiopicum L.) is a good source of disease-resistant germplasm for eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) breeding. To facilitate novel genetic manipulation of this germplasm source and introgression of genes into other eggplant species this study established protocols for the rapid and efficient regeneration of plants in t...
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Citations
... Since S. melongena and S. insanum are inter-fertile which led to intermediate individuals between them, Knapp et al. (2013) advocated a set of criteria [stem prickles, leaf lobes, leaf base, number of long styled flower, flower type, fruit size and pulp] proper for ascribing these intermediates to an individual species category (whether belongs to either S. melongena or S. insanum) by giving more importance to reproductive traits (flower and fruit) than stem prickliness. Based on the above study, the key vegetative differences identified between the both species for their categorization while collecting individual plants were as follows: leaf base (truncate; obtuse), leaf lobe apex (acute; rounded), total calyx lobe length (5-10 mm; 10-40 mm), number of prickles [0-15; 0 (some with 30)]. ...
Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is a widely cultivated vegetable in India with enormous variability. Recent molecular techniques revealed three closely related but distinct Solanum species (S. melongena, S. incanum and S. insanum), with the Indian subcontinent being a domesticated centre. Spontaneous hybridization between S. insanum and S. melongena has led to the formation of naturally introgressed lines and limited studies are available to differentiate these genotypes using morphological key traits. Current study aimed to delineate naturally introgressed genotypes of Indian eggplant collections using morphological key traits for plant genetic resources (PGR) management and assess available genetic diversity. The study characterized a collection of 157 eggplant germplasm at ICAR-NBPGR, Regional Station, Kerala, and identified 30 naturally introgressed, 10 wild progenitors and 117 cultivated eggplants. The key morphological traits are prickliness (stem, petiole, calyx and pedicle), leaf base shape, fruit shape and size. Other fruit traits such as length, breadth and mesocarp texture could also provide some clues for delineating introgressed genotypes from S. insanum and S. melongena. Basic statistical analysis of six quantitative traits of 157 eggplant genotypes revealed the presence of considerable amount of variation (CV%) in which fruit length/breadth ratio showed higher variation (73.87) followed by fruit length (54.73) and average fruit weight (53.5). The frequency distribution of 14 qualitative traits revealed the presence of all character states among them. Key traits identified under study could provide clues to identify individual plants at field level to plant taxonomist/explorers and also to aid gene bank curators for PGR management.
... Its adaptability to diverse cultivation environments, ease of growing, high yield potential, post-harvest durability, rich nutritional composition, and significant role in vegetable production make eggplant an economically important crop (Kaushik 2019;Mishiba et al. 2020). Eggplant stands out among the solanaceous crops because it is the only one with prickles (Knapp et al. 2013). Prickles are mainly found on veins, petioles, calyxes, and stems. ...
Key Message
A critical gene for leaf prickle development (LPD) in eggplant was mapped on chromosome E06 and was confirmed to be SmARF10B through RNA interference using a new genetic transformation technique called SACI developed in this study
Abstract
Prickles on eggplant pose challenges for agriculture and are undesirable in cultivated varieties. This study aimed to uncover the genetic mechanisms behind prickle formation in eggplant. Using the F2 and F2:3 populations derived from a cross between the prickly wild eggplant, YQ, and the prickle-free cultivated variety, YZQ, we identified a key genetic locus (LPD, leaf prickle development) on chromosome E06 associated with leaf prickle development through BSA-seq and QTL mapping. An auxin response factor gene, SmARF10B, was predicted as the candidate gene as it exhibited high expression in YQ’s mature leaves, while being significantly low in YZQ. Downregulating SmARF10B in YQ through RNAi using a simple and efficient Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation method named Seedling Apical Cut Infection (SACI) developed in this study substantially reduced the size and density of leaf prickles, confirming the role of this gene in prickle development. Besides, an effective SNP was identified in SmARF10B, resulting in an amino acid change between YQ and YZQ. However, this SNP did not consistently correlate with prickle formation in eight other eggplant materials examined. This study sheds light on the pivotal role of SmARF10B in eggplant prickle development and introduces a new genetic transformation method for eggplant, paving the way for future research in this field.
... India is the primary center of eggplant diversity and has a large number of wild relatives of eggplant species found in its natural habitat [8]. The categorization of the wild species of eggplant is determined by their capacity for crossbreeding with cultivated varieties, following the gene pool concept. ...
... This classification includes primary (GP1), secondary (GP2), and tertiary gene pools (GP3) as outlined by Harlan and de Wet [9]. These wild species can be potential sources of abiotic tolerance, as highlighted by Meyer et al. [10] and Knapp et al. [8]. Therefore, it is necessary to gain a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying abiotic stress, particularly drought tolerance, by studying how these wild eggplant species can survive and grow vigorously without any human intervention in their natural habitat. ...
Background
Climate change exacerbates abiotic stresses, which are expected to intensify their impact on crop plants. Drought, the most prevalent abiotic stress, significantly affects agricultural production worldwide. Improving eggplant varieties to withstand abiotic stress is vital due to rising drought from climate change. Despite the diversity of wild eggplant species that thrive under harsh conditions, the understanding of their drought tolerance mechanisms remains limited. In the present study, we used chlorophyll fluorescence (ChlaF) imaging, which reveals a plant’s photosynthetic health, to investigate desiccation tolerance in eggplant and its wild relatives. Conventional fluorescence measurements lack spatial heterogeneity, whereas ChlaF imaging offers comprehensive insights into plant responses to environmental stresses. Hence, employing noninvasive imaging techniques is essential for understanding this heterogeneity.
Results
Desiccation significantly reduced the leaf tissue moisture content (TMC) across species. ChlaF and TMC displayed greater photosystem II (PSII) efficiency after 54 h of desiccation in S. macrocarpum, S. torvum, and S. indicum, with S. macrocarpum demonstrating superior efficiency due to sustained fluorescence. PSII functions declined gradually in S. macrocarpum and S. torvum, unlike those in other species, which exhibited abrupt declines after 54 h of desiccation. However, after 54 h, PSII efficiency remained above 50% of its initial quantum yield in S. macrocarpum at 35% leaf RWC (relative water content), while S. torvum and S. indicum displayed 50% decreases at 31% and 33% RWC, respectively. Conversely, the susceptible species S. gilo and S. sisymbriifolium exhibited a 50% reduction in PSII function at an early stage of 50% RWC, whereas in S. melongena, this reduction occurred at 40% RWC.
Conclusion
Overall, our study revealed notably greater leaf desiccation tolerance, especially in S. macrocarpum, S. torvum, and S. indicum, attributed to sustained PSII efficiency at low TMC levels, indicating that these species are promising sources of drought tolerance.
... African eggplant wild relatives have shown significant morphological variations and thrive in a myriad of ecological habitats spanning from the equatorial savanna to almost barren desert landscapes (Weese & Bohs, 2010). Most of the African wild relatives belong to either the primary or secondary gene pools of one or more of the domesticated eggplants depending on their phylogenetic relationship and success of crossing with eggplant (Knapp et al., 2013) and are amenable to interspecific hybridization with eggplant (Plazas et al., 2016;Rakha et al., 2020). These Solanum species are poorly studied for breeding purposes, and they are underrepresented in seed banks (Syfert et al., 2016). ...
... In this study, S. anomalum, S. macrocarpon, S. incanum, and S. coagulans showed the highest adaptive scores of 1.02, 1.01, 0.42, and 0.42, respectively. The high adaptive score for these species, especially S. incanum, affirms records that they are known to grow in desert conditions and, especially S. incanum, is considered a powerful source of phenolics and tolerant to abiotic stress such as drought(Gramazio et al., 2017;Knapp et al., 2013;Meyer et al., 2012;Plazas et al., 2022).Our population structure analysis revealed admixture in all the species in our study, suggesting gene flow and interspecific hybridization occur regularly among eggplant wild relatives. The interfertile nature of the eggplant species can explain the admixtures and clustering of the species from different Solanum clades. ...
Crop wild relatives (CWR) provide a valuable resource for improving crops. They possess desirable traits that confer resilience to various environmental stresses. To fully utilize crop wild relatives in breeding and conservation programs, it is important to understand the genetic basis of their adaptation. Landscape genomics associates environments with genomic variation and allows for examining the genetic basis of adaptation. Our study examined the differences in allele frequency of 15,416 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) generated through genotyping by sequencing approach among 153 accessions of 15 wild eggplant relatives and two cultivated species from Africa, the principal hotspot of these wild relatives. We also explored the correlation between these variations and the bioclimatic and soil conditions at their collection sites, providing a comprehensive understanding of the genetic signals of environmental adaptation in African wild eggplant. Redundancy analysis (RDA) results showed that the environmental variation explained 6% while the geographical distances among the collection sites explained 15% of the genomic variation in the eggplant wild relative populations when controlling for population structure. Our findings indicate that even though environmental factors are not the main driver of selection in eggplant wild relatives, it is influential in shaping the genomic variation over time. The selected environmental variables and candidate SNPs effectively revealed grouping patterns according to the environmental characteristics of sampling sites. Using four genotype–environment association methods, we detected 396 candidate SNPs (2.5% of the initial SNPs) associated with eight environmental factors. Some of these SNPs signal genes involved in pathways that help adapt to environmental stresses such as drought, heat, cold, salinity, pests, and diseases. These candidate SNPs will be useful for marker‐assisted improvement and characterizing the germplasm of this crop for developing climate‐resilient eggplant varieties. The study provides a model for applying landscape genomics to other crops' wild relatives.
... Each of them grow well in their natural habitat. S. elaeagnifolium is native to desert areas and has an invasive weedy nature (Knapp et al. 2013). In our analysis, it appeared to lag behind the other genotypes considering the assessed parameters. ...
... Eggplant wild relatives are divided into three gene pools considering their interspecific hybridization ability (Harlan andde Wet 1971, Plazas et al. 2022). S. insanum, which belongs to the primary gene pool (Knapp et al. 2013, Mutegi et al. 2015, Ranil et al. 2017 and is identified as tolerant to drought stress in this study, should be considered as a good candidate for improving abiotic stress tolerance of cultivar eggplant. S. incanum and S. linnaeanum, which are from secondary gene pool (Acquadro et al. 2017), also showed tolerance in the study and could be used as donor parents in tolerance breeding studies in further years. ...
Climate change severely affects plant production and threatens life. Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is known as moderate tolerant to abiotic stresses. Drought is one of the most effective abiotic factor limits the agricultural production. In this study, 15 different eggplant genotypes, including wild relatives–Solanum macrocarpon L., Solanum linnaeanum Hepper & Jaeger, Solanum incanum L. group C, Solanum insanum (S. melongena L. group E), Solanum sisymbriifolium Lam. and Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav., local genotypes (TB, BB, MK, AH), and commonly grown commercial varieties (Topan 374, Kemer, Amadeo F1, Faselis F1, Bildircin F1) were used as a plant material to observe their responses under drought stress. Study was planned according to completely randomized block design with three replications. Plants were subjected to three different irrigation treatments, which were control (full irrigation) and two drought treatments, in which water deficit applied by 50 and 75% with respect to the control and their responses were observed by using physiological and phenotypical parameters. According to the findings, a 75%-water deficit allowed for faster and more efficient selection of tolerant individuals. This study additionally demonstrated that simple morphological data might be utilized to identify drought tolerance of eggplants. Thus, with these parameters, drought tolerance levels of eggplant germplasm can be evaluated without high-costed analysis at early growth stage. Moreover, genotypes MK, BB and TB together with wild relatives S. insanum, S. incanum, S. macrocarpon, and S. linneanum have shown remarkable tolerance to the created drought conditions.
Key words
abiotic stress; drought; eggplant; morphology; tolerance; wild relatives
... conditions with a wide range of day-night temperatures, swampy and water-logged areas (Knapp et al., 2013;Davidar et al., 2015). These characteristics make them an important component of brinjal breeding for climate change adaptation. ...
... Cluster VI with SM-14 displayed the highest cluster mean for fruit yield per plant and yield per harvest. This could be linked to the existence of specific functional genes in the accessions of clusters IV and VI, which have the (Knapp et al., 2013). The maximum contribution towards genetic divergence was identified for single fruit weight (51.5%) followed by fruit length (25.98%) and fruit width (8.28%) (Fig. 1). ...
The experiment was conducted with an aim to estimate genetic diversity among cultivated and wild accessions of brinjal crop for fruit yield and its attributes and to identify better genotypes that can be used to produce heterotic hybrids in future crop improvement programs.
... It is known as moderately sensitive to abiotic stresses (Unlukara et al., 2010;Díaz-Pérez and Eaton, 2015;Brenes et al., 2020b). Environmental changes in recent years lead to an enthusiasm for crop wild relatives (CWRs) in agronomically important crop breeding programs (Knapp et al., 2013). Moreover, the inclusion of crop wild relatives in breeding programs may broaden the genetic base of the germplasm. ...
... Although many research has been done to reveal resistance and tolerance of eggplant wild relatives to abiotic and biotic stresses (Rotino et al., 2014;Plazas et al., 2016;Gramazio et al., 2017;García-Fortea et al., 2019;Caliskan et al., 2023), efforts on transferring these skills to the cultivar eggplant were limited (Toppino et al., 2008;Liu et al., 2015). From the secondary gene pool, S. incanum L. is a close relative of eggplant, and its hybrids and backcrosses with cultivar eggplant are found mostly fertile by the researchers (Knapp et al., 2013;Kouassi et al., 2016;Plazas et al., 2016;Gramazio et al., 2017) and in agreement with previous studies, obtained seeds from the hybridization gave highly fertile individuals in this study. Although, drought tolerance of S. incanum L. has been described previously in many studies (Gramazio et al., 2017;Plazas et al., 2022;Cebeci et al., 2022;Cebeci et al., 2023), salt tolerance of this wild relative studied first in the present breeding project. ...
... The results indicated that S. incanum L. is a good candidate for improving salt tolerance in eggplant germplasm through breeding and introgression programs. Compared to the cultivated species, wild relatives of eggplant show higher stress tolerance, since they habitually found in arid/semiarid regions and in saline environments (Knapp et al., 2013;Ranil et al., 2016). ...
Salinity, which is one of the major abiotic stresses, prevails in mostly arid and semiarid areas that is nearly 20% of the world’s cultivated area. Excessive amounts of salt around the plant root zone are detrimental to vegetative growth and economic yield. Today salinization is still severely expanding and posing a great threat to the development of sustainable agriculture. Although eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is considered moderately sensitive, soil salinity mitigates strictly the growth and yield. Eggplant has significant crop wild relatives (CWRs) which are thought to be more tolerant to abiotic stresses and it is substantial to exploit their potential against salinity in hybrid breeding studies. It has previously been proven that Solanum incanum L. has tolerance to salinity stress. This study aimed to improve salinity-tolerant pure eggplant lines. Therefore, the acquired F2 population from interspecific hybridization between the pure line (BATEM-TDC47) with distinctive features from BATEM eggplant gene pool and S. incanum L., were subjected to salinity stress at 150 mM NaCl level with its parents and F1 plants. On the 12th day after the last salt treatment, the plants were evaluated using a 0-5 visual scale. Among the 256 stressed plants, 50 F2 individuals were determined to be salt tolerant. Additionally, some of their morphological and physiological features, such as shoot length, stem diameter, number of leaves, anthocyanin presence, prickliness, malondialdehyde (MDA), and proline levels, were studied and compared to the controls of their parent and F1 plants. Results showed that shoot length and stem diameter decreased dramatically under salt stress. According to the analysis, the average MDA and proline levels of the F2 population were identified as 10.9 µ mol g-1 FW and 8.4 µ mol g-1 FW, respectively. The distinguished 50 F2 plants that showed salinity tolerance were transferred to the greenhouse and self-pollinated to produce the F3 generation.
... Solanum, as a prominent component of the Solanaceae family, boasts a vast array of species distributed far and wide. Yet, the sheer size and monophyletic nature of Solanum plants often present challenges in their classification and analysis [3,4]. Moreover, the propensity of certain Solanaceae species to hybridize with one another blurs the lines of strict reproductive isolation within the family [5,6]. ...
Background
Solanum aculeatissimum and Solanum torvum belong to the Solanum species, and they are essential plants known for their high resistance to diseases and adverse conditions. They are frequently used as rootstocks for grafting and are often crossbred with other Solanum species to leverage their resistance traits. However, the phylogenetic relationship between S. aculeatissimum and S. torvum within the Solanum genus remains unclear. Therefore, this paper aims to sequence the complete chloroplast genomes of S. aculeatissimum and S. torvum and analyze them in comparison with 29 other previously published chloroplast genomes of Solanum species.
Results
We observed that the chloroplast genomes of S. aculeatissimum and S. torvum possess typical tetrameric structures, consisting of one Large Single Copy (LSC) region, two reverse-symmetric Inverted Repeats (IRs), and one Small Single Copy (SSC) region. The total length of these chloroplast genomes ranged from 154,942 to 156,004 bp, with minimal variation. The highest GC content was found in the IR region, while the lowest was in the SSC region. Regarding gene content, the total number of chloroplast genes and CDS genes remained relatively consistent, ranging from 128 to 134 and 83 to 91, respectively. Nevertheless, there was notable variability in the number of tRNA genes and rRNAs. Relative synonymous codon usage (RSCU) analysis revealed that both S. aculeatissimum and S. torvum preferred codons that utilized A and U bases. Analysis of the IR boundary regions indicated that contraction and expansion primarily occurred at the junction between SSC and IR regions. Nucleotide polymorphism analysis and structural variation analysis demonstrated that chloroplast variation in Solanum species mainly occurred in the LSC and SSC regions. Repeat sequence analysis revealed that A/T was the most frequent base pair in simple repeat sequences (SSR), while Palindromic and Forward repeats were more common in long sequence repeats (LSR), with Reverse and Complement repeats being less frequent. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that S. aculeatissimum and S. torvum belonged to the same meristem and were more closely related to Cultivated Eggplant.
Conclusion
These findings enhance our comprehension of chloroplast genomes within the Solanum genus, offering valuable insights for plant classification, evolutionary studies, and potential molecular markers for species identification.
... Genes for verticillium and fusarium wilt resistance from S. incanum were transferred successfully in generating new hybrids for S. melongena (Plazas et al. 2016;Prohens et al. 2013). In spite of these progressions in the genetic improvement of vegetable crops, reproductive barriers have continued to impede the traditional plant breeding method even in crops that have registered some successes such as S. melongena, and S. Lycopersicon (Knapp et al. 2013;Kumchai et al. 2013;Premabati Devi et al. 2015;Syfert et al. 2016). ...
Reproductive barriers are the single largest impediment in breeding of Solanum aethiopicum (Shum and Gilo cultivars). Knowledge of these barriers is important for prudent germplasm utilization and genetic improvement of the species. This study investigated compatibility barriers between S. aethiopicum and its relatives. A randomized complete block design and a full diallel mating method were used to evaluate crossability and floral traits of six genotypes of four different species (S. aethiopicum, S. macrocarpon, S. anguivi and S. incanum) across two seasons. Parameters assessed were petal opening time, stigma receptivity, anther dehiscence, pollen quantity, pollen viability and crossing success. Most flowers for all parental genotypes were opened by 08:00 am. Mean number of open flowers was higher (12 ± 6) for S. aethiopicum Shum (N11) and lowest (n = 3 ± 1) for S. macrocarpon (E12; (p < 0.001), with other genotypes being intermediate. Stigma receptivity differed (p < 0.001) among genotypes and seasons and was highest for N11 at 3.31 ± 1.32 and lowest for S. incanum (In1) at 2.24 ± 1.27; other genotypes were intermediate. All genotypes possessed high pollen viability (µ > 80%) though species differed (p < 0.01). All genotypes exhibited self-compatibility to varying degrees with N11 showing the highest fruit success (67.9 ± 15.6%), seeds per fruit (82 ± 51), and F1 germination rate (79 ± 18%). Interspecific crosses using S. macrocarpon, S. anguivi and S. incanum as females showed poor or no fruit and seed. N11 (S. aethiopicum Shum) was the top performer as a female; crosses with S. macrocarpon (N11xE12) showed highest fruit success (65.9 ± 26.5), with S. anguivi (N11xA1) showing the highest seed set (n = 56 ± 34) and S. incanum (N11xIN1) showing the highest F1 germination (64 ± 19). The F1 intraspecific cross between S. aethiopicum Shum (N4) and S. aethiopicum Gilo (G4) did not germinate. Female parent functioning may be a key feature for the failure of interspecific crosses where S. aethiopicum is a donor as observed by the unilateral incompatibility.
... Solanum melongena L. is widely regarded as one of the most important members of the Solanaceae family, which also includes economically significant species such as potato, tomato, tobacco, and pepper. (Knapp et al.,2013). In many countries, particularly in Asia, eggplant is farmed extensively as a cash crop by largely small-scale farmers. ...
Phomopsis blight is one of the most destructive diseases of eggplants (Solanum melongena) caused by the fungi, Phomopsis vexans. Commonly found in soils and eggplant leaves, the fungi cause 21% of fruit rot and 7% of seed rot in eggplants (Mahadevkumar and Janardana, 2016). Moreover, the use of pesticides was reported to fail in sustainably controlling the disease. Thus, the most efficient method to mitigate the disease is host plant resistance which is the primary goal of the study.
Relatively, Himbabao (Broussonetia luzonica) is a medium-sized shed tree with a gray, puckered, and wrinkled fruit, which is known for the antifungal property of its leaves, found in the compound tannins. Utilizing the experimental method, the study formulated various concentrations (25% with 5 ml crude extract and 15 ml distilled water, 50% with 10 ml crude extract and 10 ml distilled water, 75% with 15 ml crude extract and 5 ml distilled water, and 100% with 20ml crude extract) of the Himbabao leaves crude ethanolic extract to test its effectiveness against Phomopsis vexans isolated from the fungal spores found on the leaves of the eggplant. The research methods used include measuring the number of formed germinated and ungerminated conidia (150 test conidia) and appressoria; when subjected to control groups and the varying concentrations of the extract. Additionally, the mycelial length of fungi in micrometers (mm) was measured to further test the efficacy of the extract. One-way ANOVA was utilized for the analysis of data gathered seven (7) days after the incubation. The results showed that the 75% concentration of Himbabao extract has no difference when compared to the Dithane M-45 commercial spray (positive control group), having 9.34-12 and 55.3361.33 percentages of germinated and ungerminated conidia respectively, 12-15 number of appressoria formed, and 8-84 mm mycelial length. Whereas the effectiveness of 100% concentration of Himbabao leaves extract was notably higher than the Dithane M-45 commercial spray and the extract having 75% concentration. Nevertheless, the optimal concentration for the spray formulation is deemed to be within the range of 75%-100%.
Keywords: Eggplant, Phomopsis vexans, Himbabao, Mycelial length, Appresoria, Conidia
