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(A) Increased activity in anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) during exclusion relative to inclusion. (B) Increased activity in right ventral prefrontal cortex (RVPFC) during exclusion relative to inclusion.
Source publication
A neuroimaging study examined the neural correlates of social exclusion and tested the hypothesis that the brain bases of
social pain are similar to those of physical pain. Participants were scanned while playing a virtual ball-tossing game in
which they were ultimately excluded. Paralleling results from physical pain studies, the anterior cingulat...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... results indicated that partic- ipants felt ignored and excluded during ESE (t 5.33, P 0.05). As predicted, group analysis of the fMRI data indicated that dorsal ACC (Fig. 1A) (x -8, y 20, z 40) was more active during ESE than during inclusion (t 3.36, r 0.71, P 0.005) (23, 24 ). Self-reported distress was positively correlated with ACC activity in this contrast ( Fig. 2A) (x -6, y 8, z 45, r 0.88, P 0.005; x -4, y 31, z 41, r 0.75, P 0.005), suggesting that dorsal ACC activation during ESE was associated with emotional ...
Context 2
... regions of RVPFC were more ac- tive during ESE than during inclusion (Fig. 1B) (x 42, y 27, z -11, t 4.26, r 0.79, P 0.005; x 37, y 50, z 1, t 4.96, r 0.83, P 0.005). Self-reported distress was negatively correlated with RVPFC activity during ESE, relative to inclusion (Fig. 2B) (x 30, y 34, z -3, r -0.68, P 0.005). Additionally, RVPFC activation (x 34, y 36, z -3) was negatively correlated with ACC activ- ity ...
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Citations
... Moreover, social media blurs the boundaries between public and private self, creating heightened sensitivity to feedback, criticism, and exclusion. Even seemingly benign acts like being left out of a group chat or receiving fewer likes can function as social threats, activating the same neural circuits associated with physical pain (Eisenberger et al., 2003). Over time, these micro-stressors accumulate into chronic psychological strain, especially in vulnerable users, reinforcing symptoms of anxiety, low mood, and irritability. ...
This article offers a comprehensive, data-driven investigation into the alarming rise in mental health disorders among adolescents and young adults over the past two decades, correlating this surge with the proliferation of social media platforms. Focusing on key conditions—depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder, and early-onset psychosis—the article traces the evolution of digital life through four distinct eras (pre-2000, 2000–2010, 2010–2020, post-2020), analyzing large-scale epidemiological trends and clinical studies across age brackets 10–16 and 17–24. The article applies the diathesis-stress model to unpack the complex interplay between genetic predisposition and environmental stressors, positioning social media as a chronic, modern-day catalyst for mental health deterioration. It also investigates the growing cultural narrative of identity loss and emotional numbness in youth, revealing the neurodevelopmental toll of overstimulation and comparison-based digital environments. The final section proposes robust solutions—from media literacy and psychological interventions to legislative reforms and age-verification laws—culminating in a powerful ethical challenge to the reader: What must be done to protect the next generation from inherited digital harm? With a tone that is both scientifically rigorous and emotionally resonant, the article ultimately questions whether social media, in its current form, can coexist with adolescent mental wellness—or whether a radical reimagining is now inevitable.
... Social exclusion refers to a psychological state in which individuals feel rejected, ignored, or deliberately excluded by others (Lu & Sinha, 2017). It is commonly experienced in the form of rejection (the denial of acceptance or approval from others), isolation (physical or emotional separation from social interactions), and ostracism (being deliberately ignored or persistently excluded by a group) (Eisenberger et al., 2003;Baumeister et al., 2003;Williams, 2007;Lei et al., 2024). Such experiences endanger "the four fundamental social needs: belongingness, self-esteem, control, and meaningful existence" (Lu & Sinha, 2017, p. 409). ...
This study investigates how social exclusion influences consumer rejection of sustainable products through heightened social aspiration, moderated by identity congruence. Drawing on Social Aspiration Theory and Social Identity Theory, the research explores the psychological mechanisms underlying status-driven anti-green consumption. Across three experimental studies conducted in India, we manipulated social exclusion and measured its effects on attitudes and intentions toward green products. The results consistently demonstrate that socially excluded individuals are more likely to reject sustainable products as a means of signalling status, particularly when their perceived identity congruence with green consumption is low. These findings make significant theoretical contributions by extending compensatory consumption and identity-signalling literature into the sustainability domain. Practically, the study offers actionable insights for marketers, policymakers, and public interest campaigns by underscoring the importance of repositioning green products to align with aspirational and status-related motivations in emerging markets. This research adds novel empirical evidence to the limited literature on anti-green behaviour and highlights the relevance of social and identity-based factors in shaping sustainable consumption avoidance.
... Higher levels of loneliness are frequently associated with later levels of depression [13,14] and acute or chronic pain [15]. It has been suggested that common brain mechanisms underlie both physical and social pain [16,17] as well as immunometabolic pathologies [18], thereby establishing a connection between loneliness and elevated levels of pain and depression [18,19]. It has been argued that patients with pain-related depression may be more likely to report somatic symptoms such as fatigue, sleep disturbances or physical pain rather than more cognitive symptoms such as persistent sadness, anhedonia, and feelings of worthlessness [20]. ...
Background/Objectives: Patients with rheumatic diseases often experience pain-related depressive symptoms, potentially exacerbated by feelings of loneliness and social isolation. This study explores the role of mentalizing, i.e., the understanding of inner mental states in oneself and others, as a protective factor in this context. Methods: In this secondary analysis, n = 76 patients completed the FESV depression scale, MZQ UCLA loneliness scale and pain severity items from the German Pain Questionnaire. Structural equation models and mediation analyses were employed to test different theoretical models. Results: The best model fit was found for Model 3, which described the association of loneliness with pain severity (β = 0.34, p = 0.004). The association was fully mediated by a sequential mediation of mentalizing and pain-related depression. Adding the mediators increased the overall explained variance of pain severity from 12% to 41% with an excellent model fit (CFI > 0.99; TLI > 0.99; RMSEA = 0.001). Conclusions: The study suggests that patients’ pain severity may be influenced by the interaction between loneliness, depressive symptoms and mentalizing abilities. The negative impact of pain-related depressive symptoms and loneliness on pain severity underscores the need for their targeted management in routine care for chronic pain patients. Improvement of mentalizing may be a resilience factor for these patients.
... In humans, actual social exclusion elicits painful feelings and activates brain regions involved in emotion regulation. Evidence suggests that the right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (rVLPFC) may play a key role in the regulation of the negative emotional responses to social exclusion simulated by the Cyberball experiment [15][16][17][18]. Among healthy subjects, stimulating the rVLPFC using non-invasive neurostimulation techniques, such as anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), decreases social pain and aggressive reactions following the Cyberball social exclusion condition [19,20]. ...
Background:
Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is a debilitating mental health condition characterized by emotional dysregulation and interpersonal dysfunction, with perceived social rejection exacerbating these issues. Emerging evidence suggests that a single session of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (rVLPFC) may decrease the unique tendency of BPD patients to feel rejected even when socially included during a laboratory task.
Objectives:
This protocol outlines a double-blind, sham-controlled study evaluating the longitudinal effects of repeated anodal tDCS over the right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (rVLPFC) on rejection-related emotions (RRE) during real-life social interactions in individuals with BPD.
Methods:
Sixty BPD patients will be randomized to receive real or sham tDCS across 10 daily sessions, coupled with an ecological momentary assessment (EMA) protocol capturing emotional and behavioral responses to real-life social interactions over four timepoints: baseline, during treatment, ten days post-treatment, and three months post-treatment. Primary outcomes include changes in RRE, with exploratory analyses examining feelings of social connection, aggressive tendencies, trust toward others, and interpersonal and affective dynamics. Multilevel modeling will assess temporal and group-level effects. Expected Results and Impact: This study aims to establish the efficacy of tDCS in reducing BPD patients' negative emotional response in real-life social situations and to determine whether such effects are maintained in time. The findings could advance the clinical application of tDCS as an adjunctive intervention to alleviate social-emotional impairments in BPD, addressing gaps in current treatment approaches and guiding future research into the neural mechanisms of social emotion regulation.
... Ostracism is a painful experience: it activates the same brain areas that are activated by physical pain (Eisenberger et al., 2003). In addition, it is related to the frustration of four primary needs (see Williams, 2007Williams, , 2009, for reviews): need to belong (individuals are afraid of being excluded from the group); need for self-esteem (excluded individuals have the ...
Introduction
The aim of this study was to validate the Italian version of the workplace ostracism scale (WOS), developed by Ferris and colleagues. Workplace ostracism (WO)—the perception of being ignored or excluded by colleagues or supervisors—is a painful experience that negatively impacts employees and the whole organization. We tested the unidimensional structure of the Italian WOS, its independence of social desirability issues, and invariance across genders and ages. We also tested the nomological validity of the WOS by considering ostracism as a job demand and including it in the job demands-resources (JD-R) theory.
Method
A sample of Italian employees (N = 653), working for different organizations in several Italian regions, completed an online questionnaire. Data were analyzed using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Network analysis was applied to test the nomological validity of the scale.
Results
Findings confirmed the unifactor structure of the Italian WOS and its invariance. Social desirability only absorbed a limited portion of variance of ostracism items. Data also supported the nomological validity of the WOS, that is, the expected association of ostracism with basic need frustration, lower work engagement, altruism, and performance.
Discussion
In the discussion, we clarified the advantages of conceiving ostracism as a job demand and using network analysis to verify the JD-R theory. Practical implications of findings in order to contain workplace ostracism were commented.
... Bullying can also involve repeated and prolonged acts of aggression or deliberate behavior by a group or individual against someone who is unable to easily defend themself [19]. Research has shown that adolescents who are bullied tend to exhibit higher levels of depression and anxiety than their non-bullied counterparts, along with signs of poor social adjustment [20] or a desire for social interaction with hesitancy to proactively engage in peer interaction [21]. Although loneliness can lead to certain positive outcomes such as a deeper understanding of oneself, loneliness tends to arise from an individual's painful or hurtful experiences [22]. ...
... Individuals who feel lonely exhibit objective or subjective social isolation and experience painful emotions of not feeling accepted owing to actual or perceived isolation or a lack of contact with others [23]. The prolonged social distress caused by bullying can also lead to physical symptoms in some individuals [21]. ...
... Increasing social connections can help adolescents to increase their social support, which can effectively protect them from bullying [81]. Bullying experiences may lead adolescents to withdraw from establishing or maintaining positive peer relationships, thereby intensifying their loneliness, as reported by Eisenberger, Lieberman, and Williams [21], who noted that bullied individuals often avoid social activities. ...
Background
School bullying is a widespread phenomenon affecting a considerable proportion of adolescents worldwide, yet the relationship between school bullying and loneliness has received little attention. The aim of the present study was to understand the relationship between experiencing school bullying and loneliness among adolescents and to explore the role of social connectedness and parental support in this dynamic.
Methods
We used cluster sampling to select 1277 students between grades 7 and 12 in four middle schools across two cities in Sichuan Province, China. Data were collected via questionnaires and analysis was conducted using descriptive statistics, chain mediation model tests, and moderation model tests.
Results
We found that bullying was significantly positively correlated with adolescent loneliness (r = 0.55, P < 0.001). Additionally, social connectedness played a mediating role between bullying and adolescent loneliness (effect size 51.57%). After controlling for gender, age, and household registration type, parental support moderated the relationship between bullying and loneliness among adolescents (β=−0.05, P < 0.01). As the level of parental support increased, the positive predictive effect of bullying on loneliness weakened significantly, although this moderating effect was not significant among participants who were not “left-behind” children.
Conclusion
The study findings confirmed the relationship between school bullying and loneliness and revealed the internal logical relationship among social connectedness, parental support, loneliness, and school bullying. Our findings are valuable in preventing the negative effects of school bullying on left-behind children.
... The majority of existing studies utilized in-scanner measures of perceived social pain extracted from the Cyberball task during fMRI acquisition, where participants believe they are being excluded from a social game of passing the ball among themselves and two confederates, who do not actually exist and are programmed into the task (Williams and Jarvis 2006, Masten et al. 2009, 2012, Onoda et al. 2010, Bolling et al. 2011, Puetz et al. 2014). Studies using this task have repeatedly demonstrated increased activity and connectivity in the social pain network, a matrix of brain regions [primarily the dorsal ACC (dACC) and anterior insula] that exhibit increases in activity in response to social pain, as measured by the Needs Threats Scale, which is frequently used to assess participants' level of distress related to social exclusion immediately following completion of the Cyberball task (Eisenberger et al. 2003, Eisenberger 2006, 2012, 2015, van Beest and Williams 2006, Gerber et al. 2017, Perini et al. 2018. Previous work has shown that these regions are sensitive to a variety of measures, including the availability of positive relationships, early life stress exposure, and self-esteem (Eisenberger et al. 2003, Onoda et al. 2010, Eisenberger 2012, 2015, Masten et al. 2012, Puetz et al. 2014. ...
... Studies using this task have repeatedly demonstrated increased activity and connectivity in the social pain network, a matrix of brain regions [primarily the dorsal ACC (dACC) and anterior insula] that exhibit increases in activity in response to social pain, as measured by the Needs Threats Scale, which is frequently used to assess participants' level of distress related to social exclusion immediately following completion of the Cyberball task (Eisenberger et al. 2003, Eisenberger 2006, 2012, 2015, van Beest and Williams 2006, Gerber et al. 2017, Perini et al. 2018. Previous work has shown that these regions are sensitive to a variety of measures, including the availability of positive relationships, early life stress exposure, and self-esteem (Eisenberger et al. 2003, Onoda et al. 2010, Eisenberger 2012, 2015, Masten et al. 2012, Puetz et al. 2014. ...
Childhood and adolescence are sensitive periods for the refinement of increasingly complex executive and social functions. A particularly important skill is the ability to navigate and interpret interpersonal relationships, which is reflected in part by the maturation of distributed resting networks. However, the relationships between negative social perceptions in youth and long-term alterations in between-network connectivity is limited. To partially address this gap, we utilized longitudinal resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (N=93) with social pain measures from the NIH Toolbox Emotion Battery to determine the links between negative social perceptions on the trajectory of connectivity between the salience, frontoparietal, and default mode networks in the triple network model of psychopathology. Higher scores of perceived hostility, but not perceived rejection, tended to increase functional connectivity between the salience and both frontoparietal and default mode networks over time. These results suggest that more direct forms of threat (hostility) may be more impactful than rejection (limited desired social interactions), highlighting the importance of a dimensional approach to understanding developmental trajectories. While these connectivity changes align with several aberrant connectivity signatures observed across mental health disorders, these phenotypes are not pathognomonic of psychopathology and may reflect adaptive mechanisms in the context of social adversity.
... The "Pain Overlap Theory" (1) proposes that the experience of social pain overlaps with and amplifies the experience of physical pain by sharing parts of the same underlying processing systems (2)(3)(4)(5)(6). In humans, the insular cortex has been implicated in this overlap of physical and social pain, but a mechanistic link has not been made (2,4,5,(7)(8)(9). ...
... The "Pain Overlap Theory" (1) proposes that the experience of social pain overlaps with and amplifies the experience of physical pain by sharing parts of the same underlying processing systems (2)(3)(4)(5)(6). In humans, the insular cortex has been implicated in this overlap of physical and social pain, but a mechanistic link has not been made (2,4,5,(7)(8)(9). To determine whether social pain can subsequently impact responses to nociceptive stimuli via convergent electrical signals (spikes) or convergent chemical signals (neuromodulators), we designed a novel Social Exclusion paradigm termed the Fear of Missing Out (FOMO) Task which facilitates a mechanistic investigation in mice. ...
... Multiple theories have proposed that the experience of social pain can modulate both emotional valence (31) and physical pain (1,2). Using fMRI studies, social and physical pain overlap has been implicated in multiple brain regions associated with physical pain, including the anterior insular cortex (aIC) (8). ...
The Pain Overlap Theory proposes that the experience of social pain overlaps with and amplifies the experience of physical pain by sharing parts of the same underlying process- ing systems. In humans, the insular cortex has been implicated in this overlap of physical and social pain, but a mechanistic link has not been made. To determine whether social pain can subsequently impact responses to nociceptive stimuli via convergent electrical signals (spikes) or convergent chemical signals (neuromodulators), we designed a novel Social Exclusion paradigm termed the Fear of Missing Out (FOMO) Task which facilitates a mechanistic investigation in mice. We found that socially-excluded mice display more severe responses to physical pain, disrupted valence encoding, and impaired neural representations of nociceptive stimuli. We performed a systematic biosensor panel and found that endocannabinoid and oxytocin signaling in the insular cortex have opposing responses during trials where mice were attending or not attending to the Social Exclusion events respectively, demonstrating distinct neuromodulatory substrates that underpin different states of Social Exclusion. We also found that intra-insular blockade of oxytocin signaling increased the response to physical pain following Social Exclusion. Together these findings suggest Social Exclusion effectively alters physical pain perception using neuromodulatory signaling in the insular cortex.
... Similarly, another way of corporatizing social exclusion is in terms of temperature, with heat constituting an important function in social cognition (Herranz-Hernández & Naranjo-Crespo, 2023;Izjerman & Semin, 2009;Semin & Garrido, 2012). Support for this metaphor has also been found from a neuroscientific perspective (Balter, 2007;Eisenberger et al., 2003;Insel & Young, 2001;Kross et al., 2007;Meyer-Lindenberg, 2008). ...
Metaphor has evolved from being considered a merely linguistic resource to a basic mechanism in human cognition that links cognition and action. In this sense, in addition to being a way of thinking, it constitutes an educational tool that allows us to understand complex phenomena in terms of something simpler and more accessible, even at the perceptual or motor level. Thus, it has allowed us to work on curricular concepts in the classroom and on competencies such as socio-emotional and inclusive skills. Although there are studies that analyze the role of metaphors that conceive guilt as dirt or moral indignation as disgust, they have always been projected toward oneself. This work, through an experiment, analyzes the role of the metaphor of guilt as dirt, but projected toward others. Two experimental conditions are compared in which one protagonist helps another or takes advantage of them. The results indicate that when other people consider the behavior of that protagonist, they rate gifts related to cleanliness as more desirable when that protagonist has taken advantage of the other person. The social and educational implications of this metaphor are discussed for promoting more inclusive classroom environments and for teacher training in socio-emotional and inclusive skills.
... This "binary" view, however, is not merely descriptive, as it takes on both "prescriptive" and "proscriptive" dimensions. That is, it describes what sexes and genders should exist and how these two concepts are related, and individuals who do not fall into these binary categories risk both discrimination and victimization [1,[3][4][5]. ...
Barriers to help-seeking behaviors in transgender populations in non-Western contexts are both understudied and poorly understood. Using a quantitative cross-sectional design, this study examined the psychological help-seeking attitudes of 109 transgender persons from Pakistan in relation to their psychological distress and attitudes toward sexuality. This research further identified which components of distress (stress, anxiety, or depression) were stronger predictors and assessed the role of particular demographic/behavioral factors in help-seeking attitudes. Participants completed three validated assessment tools translated into Urdu: Beliefs about Psychological Services Scale, the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21), and the Sexual Attitude Scale. The results indicated that psychological distress predicted expertness and intent but not stigma tolerance. Post hoc analysis using DASS-21 subscales revealed that stress and anxiety were the stronger predictors of attitudes related to expertness and intent. The Sexual Attitude Scale marginally predicted stigma tolerance directly and also moderated the relationship between psychological distress and help-seeking attitudes for stigma tolerance. Finally, a role for demographic/behavioral factors-possibly serving as a proxy for mental health literacy-was identified for stigma tolerance. These findings reiterate the importance of tailored mental health awareness initiatives within the transgender community in non-Western settings and highlight the need for qualitative research to further understand the dynamics of psychological distress along with other linked factors.
