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... Much more social science research is needed on these multiple aspects of growing pest and weed resistance, including how agrochemical firms are responding to declining chemical effectiveness, ways crop and weed science shore up the industry, and the uneven social, economic, and ecological effects of these responses. Social science can also illuminate strategies used by farmers to "step off" the pesticide treadmill through agroecological methods (Warner 2007;Deguine et al. 2009;Watts and Williamson 2015) as well as industry efforts to capitalize on such efforts through new biologically derived inputs (Marrone 2007;Qiu 2015). In short, nature's "liveliness" coexists with the lethal effects of pesticides on non-target human and non-human organisms and in turn reshapes the pesticide complex (Argüelles and March 2021; and see the third and fourth sections). ...
... In short, concern for the collateral effects or unintended consequences of national bans has since grown to include the fundamental question of what replaces banned substances, and how the burden of adapting to bans is distributed. At the global level, civil society movements have sought to prevent a pattern of chemical input-substitution (e.g., Watts and Williamson 2015). They have successfully introduced language, for example in the Stockholm Convention, on the need to support countries in replacing listed chemicals not with another chemical but with "ecosystem-based alternatives". ...
The global pesticide complex has transformed over the past two decades, but social science research has not kept pace. The rise of an enormous generics sector, shifts in geographies of pesticide production, and dynamics of agrarian change have led to more pesticide use, expanding to farm systems that hitherto used few such inputs. Declining effectiveness due to pesticide resistance and anemic institutional support for non-chemical alternatives also have driven intensification in conventional systems. As an inter-disciplinary network of pesticide scholars, we seek to renew the social science research agenda on pesticides to better understand this suite of contemporary changes. To identify research priorities, challenges, and opportunities, we develop the pesticide complex as a heuristic device to highlight the reciprocal and iterative interactions among agricultural practice, the agrochemical industry, civil society-shaped regulatory actions, and contested knowledge of toxicity. Ultimately, collaborations among social scientists and across the social and biophysical sciences can illuminate recent transformations and their uneven socioecological effects. A reinvigorated critical scholarship that embraces the multifaceted nature of pesticides can identify the social and ecological constraints that drive pesticide use and support alternatives to chemically driven industrial agriculture.
... Farmers use different insecticides to control storedproduct insects, such as malathion Zettler 1991, 1992), deltamethrin (Arthur, 1997), cyfluthrin (Arthur, 1994;1999), bioresmethrin (Ardley, 1976) and chlorpyrifos-methyl (LaHue, 1997)]. Although these chemicals are effective their frequent and continuous use can lead to serious problems such as resistance and toxicity on non-target organisms (Isman, 2006;Daglish, 2008;Watts and Williamson, 2015). Hence, there has been a trend towards using safer alternative control methods (Upadhyay and Ahmad, 2011). ...
The confused flour beetle cause economic losses in stored products, especially in products obtained from wheat. Although using insecticides against storage pests is an effective method, their frequent and continuous use can lead to resistance and toxicity issues in non-target organisms. In this study, the effect of local Beauveria bassiana isolates (BMAUM LD.2016 and BMAUM M6-4) on the 3rd instar larvae of confused flour beetle (Tribolium confusum) was determined under laboratory conditions. As a result of the experiment, both isolates of B. bassiana were found to be more effective on the larvae in the spraying method compared to the dipping method. In the spraying method, mortality rates on the 9th day were 72% in BMAUM LD.2016 isolate, 34% in the dipping method, respectively. Mortality rates of BMAUM M6-4 isolate were recorded as 96% in the spraying method and 8% in the dipping method. In the spraying method, the mortality date (LT50) was determined as 6.09 days for BMAUM LD.2016 isolate and 3.90 days for BMAUM M6-4 isolate. The LT50 value could not be calculated in the dipping method, since the mortality rates were below 50% for both isolates. BMAUM M6-4 isolate caused higher mortality in larvae than BMAUM LD.2016 isolate. As a result, B. bassiana isolates have shown a high level of effectiveness against T. confusum, demonstrating that they can be used as isolates for insect control.
... As for fertilizers and chemicals [93], implementing electrification with low-carbon energy, carbon capture and storage, and biochemical processes can mitigate emissions from pesticide production. Alternative agricultural systems like agroecology can minimize pesticide use [112]. Robots are being developed to reduce pesticide use and improve farming efficiency by accurately delivering pesticides [67,113]. ...
Agriculture accounts for 12% of global annual greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (7.1 Gt CO2 equivalent), primarily through non-CO2 emissions, namely methane (54%), nitrous oxide (28%), and carbon dioxide (18%). Thus, agriculture contributes significantly to climate change and is significantly impacted by its consequences. Here, we present a review of technologies and innovations for reducing GHG emissions in agriculture. These include decarbonizing on-farm energy use, adopting nitrogen fertilizers management technologies, alternative rice cultivation methods, and feeding and breeding technologies for reducing enteric methane. Combined, all these measures can reduce agricultural GHG emissions by up to 45%. However, residual emissions of 3.8 Gt CO2 equivalent per year will require offsets from carbon dioxide removal technologies to make agriculture net-zero. Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage and enhanced rock weathering are particularly promising techniques, as they can be implemented within agriculture and result in permanent carbon sequestration. While net-zero technologies are technically available, they come with a price premium over the status quo and have limited adoption. Further research and development are needed to make such technologies more affordable and scalable and understand their synergies and wider socio-environmental impacts. With support and incentives, agriculture can transition from a significant emitter to a carbon sink. This study may serve as a blueprint to identify areas where further research and investments are needed to support and accelerate a transition to net-zero emissions agriculture.
... However, modern equipment and combining partial mechanical controls with other IWM methods can avoid serious damage, while conventional arable farmers may benefit from mechanical techniques used by organic farmers (Alford 2018). Reduced and no-till conservation agriculture is thus possible without the use of herbicides (FAO 2020, Watts andWilliamson 2015). ...
A small proportion of the thousands of pesticides on the market today are associated with a disproportionately high incidence of severe acute pesticide poisoning and suicide. Paraquat stands out as one of the most lethal pesticides in common use, frequently involved in fatal incidents due to suicides or accidental exposure. Even though paraquat has been banned in over 67 countries, it is still widely used in many others, particularly in Asia and Latin America. Based on a literature review and consultations, this paper identifies options for replacing paraquat and distils practical lessons from numerous successes around the world. Our aim is to support regulators, policymakers, agronomists and the supply chain sector with practical information related to phasing out paraquat . Production data consistently failed to show any negative effects of banning paraquat on agricultural productivity. A wide range of alternative approaches to weed management and crop defoliation are available, many of which do not rely on herbicides. Over 1.25 million farmers in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) successfully produce a range of crops for private voluntary standards (PVS) in food and fiber supply chains which prohibit paraquat use. We conclude from the findings of this study that eliminating paraquat will save lives without reducing agricultural productivity. Less hazardous and more sustainable alternatives exist. To enhance successful adoption and uptake of these methods on a wide scale, farmers require training and support within an enabling policy environment.
... Chapter 2) towards agroecological practices and a few have begun institutionalising and integrating them into their agriculture and food policy frameworks (Ajates Gonzalez et al. 2018;La Via Campesina 2015;Meek and Anderson 2020;Nyeleni 2015;PAN International 2015;Watts and Williamson 2015). In the case of African countries such as Uganda, Tanzania, Tunisia and Malawi, the driving forces for adoption are the government, strong local non-governmental organisations and support from international development agencies (Adebiyi 2014;Bakewell-Stone 2006;UNEP-UNCTAD 2008). ...
Abstract
Nigeria is still predominantly an agrarian society; the agricultural sector employs around
40% of the entire labour force. Over the last four decades in a bid to enhance agricultural
production, various agricultural policies and programmes have been introduced by the
government. Based on conventional agricultural techniques these policies have done
little to support smallholder farmers and have resulted in negative environmental
impacts. Despite all these efforts, Nigeria remains a food deficit nation and a net importer
of agricultural produce. Increasing global food and environmental crises, particularly in
Africa, have created renewed interest in the viability of alternative approaches to
agriculture and food systems such as agroecology for ameliorating these issues. This
study had three broad aims: 1) to understand how agroecology is practised and
understood in Nigeria; 2) to evaluate the opportunities for wider adoption of
agroecological techniques; and 3) to understand the challenges to transitioning from the
current conventional farming system to a more agroecological approach. From these
aims, five objectives were developed, and these were addressed using a variety of
qualitative methods. This study adopted an inductive approach which incorporates
participatory action and design science research. A theoretical framework provides the
rationale for the study and justification for the methods chosen as this project intersects
at different research fields. Qualitative methods were successfully utilised for data
collection and analysis, these included focus groups, semi-structured interviews and
thematic analysis. The fieldwork research activities took place in Imo and Abia states, in
south-east Nigeria. In total, 70 participants took part in the study, this comprised of 40
farmers, 20 extension personnel and 10 agricultural university lecturers, purposively and
randomly selected. The farmers interviewed in this study were not familiar with the term
agroecology although they understood what organic agriculture was and were concerned
about the impact of conventional practices on their environment. Further work is needed
to determine if this is replicated in other regions of Nigeria. The examination of the
existing agricultural knowledge exchange systems (AKIS) in Nigeria identified two clear
strands, a top-down formal system determined by government policy and facilitated by
the extension services and a bottom-up, informal system of peer-to-peer knowledge
exchange between farmers. Currently, information on agricultural techniques and
innovation is provided to farmers through the extension services. A key organisation is
the National Extension and Advisory Liaison Service [NEARLS]. Interviews with
NEARLS personnel revealed that government agricultural policy was based solely on
intensive or conventional farming techniques and there was no expertise within the
vi
organisation on agroecology. As the top-down information AKIS is driven by government
policy, this is difficult to influence and change in the short-term. Therefore, this study
explored potential options to facilitate a bottom-up approach to agroecological transition.
Peer-to-peer knowledge exchange is a key aspect of this approach and mobile
applications (m-apps) could be used to facilitate this. A scoping review of currently
available m-apps in Nigeria, revealed none which support agroecology. The
SmartAgroeocology m-app was developed and demonstrated to farmers and extension
agents, feedback from participants was positive. In conclusion, this study found that
farmers are concerned about the negative impacts of the conventional techniques they
use, and they are interested in adopting agroecological practices although they need
support to do this. Currently formal support is provided by the extension services, but
this is based on government policy which does not include agroecology. This top-down
approach therefore does not currently support transition towards agroecological
systems. Encouraging farmers to support each other and facilitate peer-to-peer
knowledge exchange using mobile technology could instead facilitate a bottom-up
approach to agroecological transition. In this study in southeast Nigeria, the potential of
this was demonstrated by the SmartAgroecology app. The farmers in this study were
very positive about its potential but further work is needed to determine whether these
findings are representative of farmers in Nigeria.
Keywords: agroecological systems, transition challenges and opportunities, interactive
knowledge exchange.
... Insecticides are important components of insect pest management programs for stored grains, mills, processing plants, and retail stores (Arthur and Subramanyam 2012). However, the frequent and continuous application of synthetic chemical insecticides has resulted in serious drawbacks on the environment, toxicity hazards on non-target organisms, and the development of resistance (Isman 2006;Daglish 2008;Watts and Williamson 2015). These concerns along with consumer demand for less toxic pest insect control products have pushed research toward more ecologically compatible bio-agents for insect pest management. ...
Entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) and essential oils (EOs) can show either positive or negative interactions when used for controlling insect pests. First, the insecticidal efficacy of EPF including Beauveria bassiana isolates Z1 and IRAN1395C, Lecanicillium lecanii, and Paecilomyces lilacinus was tested against adults of Tribolium castaneum using two methods (standard insect dip and wheat diet incorporation). Additionally, the toxicity of EOs from Trachyspermum ammi, Foeniculum vulgare, Eucalyptus globulus, Salvia mirzayanii, Majorana hortensis, and Thymus vulgaris was evaluated against adult T. castaneum. Thereafter, the effect of an LC25 concentration of F. vulgare (86.13 µl L−1), T. ammi (235.2 µl L−1), and E. globulus (111.33 µl L−1) EOs on mycelial growth, spore germination, and sporulation of the EPF was determined. In standard dip bioassay, the lowest LT50 of 10.4 days was induced by L. lecanii, while the wheat diet incorporation method resulted in LT50 values ranging between 13.1 and 15.2 days. The LC50 values for E. globulus, F. vulgare, and T. ammi were 162.3, 140.3, and 310 μl L−1 air against adults, respectively. The EOs examined showed strong inhibition of mycelial growth, conidial germination, and sporulation at sublethal concentrations. EOs of F. vulgare and T. ammi completely inhibited mycelial growth and sporulation of the tested EPF. Germination inhibition ranged from 100% in L. lecanii exposed to EO from F. vulgare to 52.3% in B. bassiana Z1 exposed to EO from T. ammi. Based on the results, although EOs and EPF are successful agents to control adults T. castaneum when used separately, it cannot be applied in combination because of the conflicting effect.
... Generally, industrial agriculture, also called conventional agriculture, is characterized by the intensive use of external and commercial inputs (Kremen & Miles, 2012), while agroecology aims to reduce strongly the use of external inputs; however, the origin of these inputs (e.g., synthetic or organic) is not fully specified (Altieri, 1995;Gliessman, 2007;IPES-Food, 2016;Watts & Williamson, 2015). Scenarios for 2050 predict that the need for chemical fertilizers and pesticides will increase in an effort to increase crop production and feed a growing world population (FAO 2018b). ...
Seven potential controversial topics in agroecology are presented and discussed from a European perspective comparing the position of Agroecology Europe (AEEU) obtained from an iterative, participatory approach with members and compared with published literature, including views from other parts of the world. The seven controversial topics as follows: i) use of agrochemicals; ii) small-scale and peasant farming versus larger farms; iii) technological innovations in agriculture and precision farming; iv) biotechnology and genetic engineering in agriculture; v) local and short food circuits; vi) social justice; vii) gender perspective. The analysis shows that there are diverse points of view related to geographical area and sociopolitical contexts. However, there are several convergences in the ambition to redesign farming and food systems, as a lever acting on several topics, and in considering agroecology with a holistic, participatory, multiactor approach for the needed transition.
... Other important benefits to human health from the adoption of RA is the cessation or immense reduction of the use of chemical pesticides, herbicides and fungicides. Acute and chronic exposure to many of these chemicals can cause short and long-term health issues (Watts and Williamson 2015). Serious illness from pesticide poisoning can severely impact labour as well as cause financial distress from medical costs. ...
... in production and yield, pest management in coffee will be essential, and this increasingly must be attained with reduced reliance on chemical control (Watts & Williamson, 2015). ...
Coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari), the most damaging insect pest of coffee worldwide, was first detected on Hawaii Island in 2010. Poorly managed, abandoned and feral coffee sites on the island have since been thought to harbour coffee berry borer (CBB) populations, which then negatively impact neighbouring coffee farms. In the present study, we sought to quantify CBB abundance in these sites, which vary in management intensity and vegetation structure and diversity. We collected data on trap catch as a measure of CBB flight activity, fruit production and fruit infestation by CBB in eight well‐managed farms and sites that were either poorly managed, abandoned or feral (wild) coffee. Sites were sampled bi‐weekly over a period of 2 years from 2016 to 2017. We found that CBB flight activity was significantly higher in poorly managed sites relative to abandoned and feral sites, but was not significantly different from well‐managed sites. Coffee production in well‐managed farms was significantly higher than in abandoned and feral sites, but was not significantly different from poorly managed farms. CBB infestation in poorly managed sites was significantly higher than that observed in well‐managed, abandoned and feral sites. We estimated an average load of 11–25 CBB per branch at poorly managed sites, compared to 3–9 per branch at well‐managed sites, 1–16 per branch at abandoned sites and 1–3 per branch at feral sites. Our findings suggest that poorly managed sites should be prioritized for implementation of CBB control measures as part of a landscape‐level integrated pest management (IPM) programme.
... In order to address overuse and inappropriate application of pesticides in cotton cultivation, all five NGOs outlined specific demands pertaining to the types of pesticides allowed, as well as alternative methods to regulate pests in cotton cultivation (Castillo, 2014;Cook et al., 2016;FoE, 2018b;PAN, 2017PAN, , 2018bTirado, 2015;Watts and Williamson, 2015;WWF, 2013). Greenpeace and PAN had the most detailed and extensive demands with regards to pesticides. ...
... Greenpeace and PAN had the most detailed and extensive demands with regards to pesticides. FoE, Oxfam, PAN and WWF all encouraged the avoidance of synthetic pesticides (Castillo, 2014;Cook et al., 2016;FoE, 2018b;PAN, 2018b;Watts and Williamson, 2015;WWF, 2013); however, Greenpeace was more stringent in calling for no chemical pesticides to be used in agricultural practices at all (Tirado, 2015). Only PAN explicitly demanded a complete ban on HHPs (PAN, 2018b), and PAN was also the only NGO to demand field sanitation and hygiene measures, such as removing old crop remains to reduce the spread of pests (PAN, 2017). ...
... Regarding fertilizers, the selected NGOs explicitly recommended a number of agricultural strategies and methods to mitigate their impacts (Cook et al., 2016;Tirado, 2015;Watts and Williamson, 2015;WWF, 2013). All explicitly encouraged the reduced use of chemical and mineral fertilizers, and advocated for the use of cover crops, green manure, composting and crop rotation methods (Castillo, 2014;Cook et al., 2016;Tirado, 2015;Watts and Williamson, 2015;WWF, 2013). ...
Environmental sustainability is a major challenge for cotton production in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The creation of voluntary certification programs is an effort aimed at finding new ways to influence corporate conduct along supply chains. This article contributes novelty and insight on cotton certification in SSA by exploring the most relevant programs in detail with regard to the demands of international non-governmental organizations (NGOs). We selected the five most central NGOs dedicated to environmental sustainability in agriculture: Friends of the Earth (FoE), Greenpeace, Oxfam, Pesticide Action Network (PAN), and World Wildlife Fund (WWF). After identifying these NGOs’ demands regarding pesticides, fertilizers and genetically modified (GM) cotton, we analyzed the requirements of the four most dominant programs certifying SSA cotton cultivation: the Better Cotton Initiative (BCI), Cotton made in Africa (CmiA), the EU Organic Regulation and Fairtrade Labelling Organization (FLO). The results of our document analysis are bolstered by semi-structured interviews with stakeholders on NGOs’ stances and roles in standard setting and implementation. We find that the EU Organic Regulation scores best in terms of environmental sustainability. Those programs in which NGOs actively participate are less ambitious compared to the public standard. Therefore, we conclude that, if NGOs maintain their commitment to multi-stakeholder initiatives, they risk contributing to ‘greenwashing’ corporate conduct by mobilizing consumer support for labelling programs that actually fall behind existing public regulation on organic certification.
