Figure - uploaded by Genevieve Dewar
Content may be subject to copyright.
1 SOM δ 13 C data for the Melikane samples showing depth from surface, mean, standard deviation and percentage of elemental carbon for each set of triplicate samples
Source publication
The Maloti-Drakensberg Mountains
are southern Africa’s highest and give rise to South Africa’s largest river, the Orange-Senqu. At Melikane Rockshelter
in highland Lesotho
(~1800 m a.s.l.), project AMEMSA (Adaptations to Marginal Environments in the Middle Stone Age) has documented a pulsed human presence since at least MIS 5. Melikane can be inter...
Similar publications
Lesotho faces a catastrophic syndemic of HIV and tuberculosis (TB). In 2011, the government of Lesotho launched isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT) as a once-off intervention to reduce the occurrence of TB in HIV-positive people. This study evaluated the effectiveness of IPT and the durability of its effectiveness based on Cox's proportional hazards...
The marginalization of surviving hunter-gatherer groups to Africa’s ecological and sociopolitical fringes makes it certain that very different societal forms existed in the past. In relatively recent periods, such as the late Holocene, rich, well preserved archaeological records can mitigate this issue. Much more challenging are the problems create...
The ‘new variant famine’ hypothesis suggests AIDS is contributing to food insecurity in southern Africa. Proposed causal mechanisms include a loss of livelihood assets and skills, brought about through AIDS′ impacts on children’s access to inherited property and intergenerationally-transferred knowledge. This paper employs a sustainable livelihoods...
The Los Menucos locality in Patagonia, Argentina, bears a well-known ichnofauna mostly documented by small therapsid footprints. Within this ichnofauna, large pentadactyl footprints are also represented but to date were relatively underinvestigated. These footprints are here analyzed and discussed based on palaeobiological indications (i.e., trackm...
Small bird-like tracks have recently been discovered at three outcrops of the Imilchil Formation (Middle Jurassic, Bajocian-Bathonian) in the Central High Atlas of Morocco. The track-bearing strata are part of a marine-continental transitional succession, the studied surfaces being sandy marls and limestones of a brackish depositional environment....
Citations
... AMEMSA's 14 C and OSL dates (pink), Bousman Index values (% C 3 , green), tree cover density ratio values (D/P, blue), and 13 C isotope values (red). Spits within contexts are designated by tick marks on the left (data from Stewart et al., 2016) Vegetation composition in the Lesotho highlands is largely determined by temperature, and thus correlates with altitude and aspect (Ehleringer et al., 1997;Patalano et al., 2023;Vogel, 1983). Higher altitudes host primarily C 3 plants, whereas lower altitudes favor C 4 -dominant communities (Vogel, 1983). ...
... Higher altitudes host primarily C 3 plants, whereas lower altitudes favor C 4 -dominant communities (Vogel, 1983). Melikane is surrounded primarily by C 4 vegetation today, but soil organic matter (SOM) δ 13 C values from the site suggest that C 3 grasses dominated the local landscape throughout the site's late Pleistocene sequence (Stewart et al., 2016). Four SOM and phytolith samples were taken from Melikane's ~27-23 ka levels at depth increments of 10 cm, corresponding to contexts 6-8:3, 6-8:1, 5:3, and 5:1 ( Fig. 4; Table 3). ...
... Four SOM and phytolith samples were taken from Melikane's ~27-23 ka levels at depth increments of 10 cm, corresponding to contexts 6-8:3, 6-8:1, 5:3, and 5:1 ( Fig. 4; Table 3). The ratio of woody to grass phytolith types (D/P ratio) falls to its lowest point in the entire sequence in samples MLK4 and MLK5 (contexts 6-8), reflecting a treeless, open grassland landscape (Stewart et al., 2016). Slightly higher D/P ratios in MLK 2 and MLK3 are still lower than values from most other occupation pulses (Stewart et al., 2016). ...
Melikane, a large sandstone rockshelter in the Maloti-Drakensberg Mountains of highland Lesotho, preserves an 80,000-year-old archaeological sequence including an occupation pulse dated to the onset of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), ~27–23 kcal BP. Paleoenvironmental proxies indicate that temperature depressions of ~6 °C below present values provoked changes in vegetation distribution around the site. The onset of the LGM also coincides with a global shift towards microlithization, expressed in southern Africa as the Later Stone Age Robberg bladelet industry. Bousman and Brink’s (Quaternary International 495:116–135, 2018) rapid replacement hypothesis asserts that this technocomplex was adopted nearly simultaneously across the subcontinent ~24 ka cal BP, replacing the Early Later Stone Age technologies that preceded it. An alternative model, which we term the LGM acceleration hypothesis, suggests that the Robberg developed slowly as existing technologies were modified and expanded to function flexibly in a variety of LGM environments. In this paper, we test these hypotheses at Melikane through attribute and morphometric analyses of > 17,000 lithic artifacts. Intrasite continuities and gradual, asynchronous changes in flaking systems are inconsistent with rapid replacement. Instead, the subtle refinement of bladelet reduction strategies alongside climate shifts and a reorganization of mobility and settlement systems supports our LGM acceleration hypothesis. However, Melikane’s combination of highland-specific idiosyncrasies and shared flaking systems with sites in less marginal environments suggests a complex role for cultural transmission. We suggest that periodic isolation throughout the LGM encouraged the development of new flaking systems, the most flexible of which were adopted in a variety of environments when biogeographic barriers to transmission were lifted.
... Redistribution of food resources will often drive the movement of human and nonhuman animals differently through montane environments. As such, one argument states that seasonal variability in resource abundance will influence the mobility of past peoples throughout Afromontane regions (Stewart & Mitchell, 2018a;Stewart et al., 2016). Although highland Lesotho's rich archaeological record demonstrates humans' episodic use of this region over the past 100,000 years (e.g., Bousman, 1988;Mitchell & Vogel, 1994;Mitchell, 1996aMitchell, , 2009Stewart et al., 2012), with traces of earlier activity extending back into at least the late Middle Pleistocene (Carter, 1978), to date, there have been few attempts to survey (or source) the region's diverse knappable rocks. ...
... These results complicate assumptions about the relationship between paleotemperature and mobility strategies, contributing to debates about climatic change's role in prehistoric mobility patterns in Lesotho (cf. Mitchell, 1995;Stewart & Mitchell, 2018a, 2018bStewart et al., 2016). In the following sections, we introduce Lesotho's landscape and geology and the archaeological assemblage from Sehonghong. ...
... Its topographic and climatic variability and rich archaeological record provide a unique opportunity to examine the relationship between montane environments, stone procurement patterns, and mobility strategies across much of the Later Pleistocene (22-11 ka cal. BP) and Holocene ( Fig. 1) (Stewart et al., 2016). Eastern Lesotho possesses a relatively simple geological structure dominated by ancient Lower Jurassic period ca. ...
Archaeologists have long considered climate change a primary mechanism behind human behavioral adaptations. The Lesotho highlands’ Afromontane and climatically extreme environments offer a unique opportunity to examine proposed correlations between topography, climate, and human behavior. Previous studies suggest that warmer temperatures allowed humans to expand their diet breadth and foraging range, whereas colder temperatures restricted humans to resources in riverine corridors. These studies used faunal and floral change as proxies to track changes in forager mobility but did not consider how differential access to stone resources affected human behaviors. To account for this gap, we conducted a survey for knappable rocks around the Sehonghong rock shelter in eastern Lesotho, recording the materials present and their size and shape in the modern environment. We compared the survey results to later Pleistocene (~ 22–11 ka cal. BP) lithic assemblages at Sehonghong to better understand whether archaeological patterns match modern knappable rock availability. Contrary to previous hypotheses, we find that past peoples at Sehonghong were not limited to exclusively riverine resources during colder conditions. We then used flake-to-core and noncortical-to-cortical flake ratios to track changes in mobility and knappable rock procurement patterns. The ratios remain constant up until the Late Glacial, ca. 14 ka cal. BP, when we see an increase in both flake-to-core and noncortical-to-cortical ratios, suggesting increased movement of stone out of Sehonghong. These conclusions show that resource procurement and mobility patterns are not solely dependent on climate change but may be driven by more complicated causal mechanisms such as increased interaction and the formation of social networks across the Lesotho highlands and beyond.
... Valley (Ehleringer et al., 1997). However, phytoliths and soil organic matter (SOM) from the site's early LGM deposits suggest that C 3 grasses heavily dominated the local landscape (Stewart et al., 2016) (Fig. 3). ...
... The top sample in Layer 4 (context 5, spit 1) produced the highest Bousman Index values of the sequence, suggesting an environment with >95% C 3 grasses. The C 4 grasses that remained were drought-tolerant chloridoids (Stewart et al., 2016;Twiss, 1992). The tree cover density ratio (D/P ratio), de ned as the proportion of woody to grassy phytolith morphotypes, plunged to its lowest point in the Melikane sequence in Layer 5 (contexts 6-8) and rose slightly in Layer 4 (context 5) (Stewart et al., 2016). ...
... The C 4 grasses that remained were drought-tolerant chloridoids (Stewart et al., 2016;Twiss, 1992). The tree cover density ratio (D/P ratio), de ned as the proportion of woody to grassy phytolith morphotypes, plunged to its lowest point in the Melikane sequence in Layer 5 (contexts 6-8) and rose slightly in Layer 4 (context 5) (Stewart et al., 2016). This suggests a relatively barren landscape on the eve of the LGM, with tree cover increasing incrementally over time alongside the expansion of C 3 grasses. ...
Melikane, a large sandstone rockshelter in the Maloti-Drakensberg Mountains of highland Lesotho, preserves an 80,000 year-old archaeological sequence including two layers (4 & 5) dated to the onset of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), ~ 24 kcal BP. Paleoenvironmental proxies indicate that these layers were associated with increasing aridification and changes in resource distribution. An analysis of > 17,000 lithic artifacts combining attribute and morphometric approaches reveals that these environmental changes occurred alongside the adoption of Later Stone Age (LSA) Robberg bladelet technology at the site (Layer 4), which developed out of an early microlithic industry we classify as “incipient Robberg” (Layer 5). We argue that the accelerated implementation and standardization of bladelet technology in Layer 4 was the consequence of modifying and expanding existing technologies to function in a high-stakes LGM environment. While intrasite continuities and gradual changes in flaking systems at Melikane are inconsistent with the Robberg’s arrival via population replacement or migration (cf. Bousman and Brink, 2018), shared flaking systems with penecontemporary sites also implicate a role for cultural transmission in the Robberg’s development and demand an alternate explanation for its use in nonmarginal environments. We attribute its adoption in southern Africa more broadly to the extraordinary flexibility of bladelet technology and an ongoing cycle of connectivity and isolation throughout the LGM, encouraging the development of new flaking systems and their subsequent coalescence and diffusion.
... Traditionally in southern African LSA research, the coastal zones have been viewed as the main source of populations moving inland to the mountainous regions (e.g. Carter 1978;Parkington 1972;Compton 2011), but few models develop the dynamics of population movement in the interior (though see Beaumont 1986;Deacon 1974;Sampson 1985;Stewart et al. 2016;Mitchell 2017). Research in the Tankwa Karoo begins to address this by showing different behavioural patterns between the Cape Fold Belt and Karoo zones, with ephemeral use of the eastern Tankwa basin pointing towards movement further east to the Roggeveld Escarpment. ...
The Late Pleistocene and Holocene settlement record of southern Africa shows clear discontinuities both through time and across space. While there is considerable variability between different ecological biomes, the sub-continent’s interior arid zones show particularly unstable occupation histories. However, understanding the nature of and reasons for these discontinuities is hampered by substantial spatial gaps in our archaeological knowledge. This paper presents evidence from the Tankwa Karoo region — intermediate between the well-studied Western Cape Cederberg Mountains and the interior Upper Karoo — to capture Later Stone Age (LSA) behaviour at the interface between Cape and Karoo environments. Off-site surveys recorded surface artefacts across a 100 km-long study area, documenting LSA settlement at a landscape scale and testing expected patterns against settlement records of regions to the west and east. The results indicate that in contrast to the strongly pulsed occupation evidence from the Cederberg Mountains and the Upper Karoo, no LSA phases show particularly high site densities or sustained use of longer-term sites. Additionally, the most arid parts of the eastern Tankwa Karoo show very limited LSA evidence. This suggests that this marginal environment was occupied only ephemerally during the LSA, potentially serving as a corridor between more reliably resourced regions.
... Approximately 80 specimens of charcoal (Stewart et al., 2016) were analysed from two layers from each member, except from Members 5 BS and 4 WA where more layers were examined (Table 1). Standard anthracological methods were applied to identify the charcoal (see for example Figueiral and Mossbruger, 2000;Allott, 2006;Th ery-Parisot et al., 2010;Cartwright, 2013;Backwell et al., 2014;Bamford, 2015a, b;Stewart et al., 2016;King and Dotte-Sarout, 2018;Bodin et al., 2020;Henry et al., 2020). ...
... Approximately 80 specimens of charcoal (Stewart et al., 2016) were analysed from two layers from each member, except from Members 5 BS and 4 WA where more layers were examined (Table 1). Standard anthracological methods were applied to identify the charcoal (see for example Figueiral and Mossbruger, 2000;Allott, 2006;Th ery-Parisot et al., 2010;Cartwright, 2013;Backwell et al., 2014;Bamford, 2015a, b;Stewart et al., 2016;King and Dotte-Sarout, 2018;Bodin et al., 2020;Henry et al., 2020). Border Cave specimens were selected for identification by means of random sampling within each sample using random number tables (Drennan, 2009). ...
Border Cave is a key Middle Stone Age (MSA) site in southern Africa, with a 4 m-deep sedimentary sequence that dates from more than 227 000 (227 ka) to 44 ka ago. Lithic assemblages vary considerably during this period and artefacts made from organic materials become common at the end of the MSA sequence. Here we describe charcoal from the 10 members that comprise the stratigraphic sequence. Anatomical features of charcoal were studied by means of reflected light microscopy, the use of the International Association of Wood Anatomists code and modern wood charcoal reference collections. Most woody plants represented by charcoal at the site are evergreen trees. Indicator plants from bushveld and open woodland taxa were most common in Member 6 BS (>227 ka) and Member 5 WA (~227 ka). Moist forest was most common in Members 5 BS (~161e144 ka) and 4 WA (~168e113 ka), while Member 1 RGBS (~74 ka) had a combination of bushveld and moist forest. At about 64 ka, dry bushveld predominated, while in Members 3 BS (72e56 ka) and 2 WA (~60 ka) moist forest was the predominant vegetation type. Member 2 BS.UP (49e44 ka) mostly included bushveld and moist forest patches, while Member 1 WA (~43 ka) was predominantly dry bushveld. The Border Cave occupations seem to have taken place in drier conditions than those at present. The driest members were 5 BS, 4 WA, 1 RGBS and 3 WA, followed by Members 2 BS and 1 WA. Member 3 BS was only slightly drier than present, while Member 2 WA was moderately drier than present. The past vegetation is similar to the modern vegetation profile and there appears to have been remarkable stability through time, suggesting that cultural changes in the sequence may not be linked to environmental change.
... The cultural changes observed in the lithic assemblages at Border Cave may not be linked to environmental change because the vegetation profile suggests relative environmental stability (Lennox et al., this volume). Only a few other MSA sites in southern Africa preserve charcoal, namely Melikane (Stewart et al., 2016), Apollo 11 (Vogelsang et al., 2010), Strathalan Cave B (Opperman and Heydenrych, 1990), Boomplaas (Scholtz, 1986), Diepkloof Rock Shelter (Cartwright, 2013), Elands Bay Cave (Cartwright and Parkington, 1997;Cowling et al., 1999) and Sibudu (Wadley, 2004;Allott, 2004Allott, , 2006Sievers, 2006;Bamford, 2021). ...
In 2015, which marked 35 years since Beaumont had worked at the site, we renewed excavations at Border Cave. Our primary aims were to reassess the stratigraphic context of the sedimentary and cultural sequence, gain insight into site formation processes, make a detailed study of organic remains, identify long term cultural trends, and characterize expressions of complex behaviour and innovation. This contribution serves as an update on activities conducted in 2018 and 2019 and provides an overview of our research findings to date, placing them in the broader context of the Middle Stone Age in southern Africa. New luminescence ages based on feldspar grains in the sedimentary sequence are in broad agreement with the previous chronology established for the site. Geoarchaeology and faunal taphonomy have started to elucidate site formation processes, showing that the members should not be considered as homogeneous units, and that associated formation interpretations established by Beaumont are simplifications that are not representative of the diverse site formation processes active in the shelter. This finding is supported by lithic analysis of the Member 2 WA assemblage that shows differences in technology between artefacts from the top, middle, and lower part of the same member. In addition, the lithic artefacts from the middle and lower part of Member 2 WA show continuities with the lithics from the underlying Members 3 BS and 1 RGBS, which were attributed by Beaumont to a different industry. Grass mats/bedding layers are preserved throughout the sequence, the oldest of which dates to~200 ka. The use of ash and leaves with insecticidal properties in the bedding construction reflects complex cognition, as does the cooking of starchy rhizomes that come from layers dated to 170 ka. In addition to a rich mammal fauna found in all of the deposits, the remains of a new individual, a 3e4-year-old child, were recovered from Member 1 BS.LR C that has an ESR date of 42.6 ka.
... Finally, the work of several researchers (e.g. Stewart et al. 2012Stewart et al. , 2016Mackay et al. 2014b) points clearly towards the considerable impact that different environmental conditions can have on human cultural adaption and settlement patterns. This assumption is strongly supported by the results of our current study and thus future research should add more focus on these kinds of factors, linking multiple chronological, cultural and environmental proxies in order to generate a holistic understanding of past human behaviour and adaptions. ...
The end of the Middle Stone Age in southern Africa, often called the final MSA (∼40–28 ka), represents one of the most understudied technocomplexes in this part of the world. Researchers have often focused on earlier time periods associated with Marine Isotope Stage 4 or have emphasised the transition between the Middle and the Later Stone Age. Thus, the final MSA has been poorly understood and, at least in KwaZulu-Natal, only a few chrono-cultural markers called hollow-based points are known for it. Since 2016, excavations at Umbeli Belli rock shelter have produced new insights into this period. The site provides one of the most accurately dated sequences for the final MSA, spanning four geological horizons, respectively GH7, GH8, GH9 and GH10, that date to between 29.9 ± 2.3 and 40.3 ± 3.5 ka. Significant technological and typological variations are evident between those horizons, raising questions about the mechanisms behind them. A direct comparative analysis with the final MSA layers Coffee – Espresso at Sibhudu, which date to ∼38 ka, places these results in the regional archaeological context. The analysis shows first that the final MSA encompasses diachronic variability within relatively short time frames at Umbeli Belli. Secondly, it reveals several distinct chronological discrepancies between Sibhudu and Umbeli Belli. A detailed review of the environmental setting of the research area helps to explain these changes.
... Further to the east, at Rose Cottage Cave, charcoal assemblages from the latest MIS 5 occupation at~78 ka (layer Kusel, pre-HP) show the presence of deciduous woodland typical of a humid environment (Lennox and Wadley, 2022;Pienaar et al., 2008). In the Maloti-Drakensberg, the basal portion of the Melikane sequence (Layers 30e27), which includes pre-HP artifacts dated tõ 83e80 ka, yielded a phytolith assemblage dominated by C 3 grass short cells, consistent with a humid and cool grassland at high altitude (Pazan et al., 2022;Stewart et al., 2012Stewart et al., , 2016. ...
Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5 and 4 are periods of major cultural innovations in the Middle Stone Age (MSA) of southern Africa. While extensive data is available for the coast, far less is known about the interior, in particular its central plateau. This is likely due to the large geographic extent of this area and a general paucity of caves and rock shelters that can provide long stratigraphic sequences and environmental records. The lack of information and systematic research has hindered our understanding of regional variation and patterns of human dispersal within the subcontinent. Our research at the open-air MSA site of Lovedale situated on the Modder River addresses this issue. Using sediment micromorphology, infrared spectroscopy of bones and sediments, phytolith and faunal analyses, as well as luminescence dating, we have reconstructed the evolution of paleoenvironments in this region at specific points over the last ∼80,000 years. Our results help contextualize human occupation and hunting strategies associated with a pre-Howiesons Poort technology that occurred in a wetland environment during a short-lived warm, dry period dated to ∼70 ka. These results show that humans settled the grasslands of the central interior at the onset of MIS 4 and confirm the importance of wetlands in human subsistence strategies, especially in times of climatic stress.
... These Rift Valley water sources probably acted both as catalysts and barriers to human interaction [34], as they do ethnographically [35]. High-altitude landscapes have been highlighted as potential refugia owing to their enhanced humidity in contrast with surrounding lowlands, such as in the Ethiopian Rift [36,37] or the Lesotho Highlands [38,39]. Similarly, enhanced precipitation experienced in proximity to the coast has been indicated as a feature that may have supported enduring occupation of sites in eastern and southern Africa (e.g. ...
Homo sapiens have adapted to an incredible diversity of habitats around the globe. This capacity to adapt to different landscapes is clearly expressed within Africa, with Late Pleistocene Homo sapiens populations occupying savannahs, woodlands, coastlines and mountainous terrain. As the only area of the world where Homo sapiens have clearly persisted through multiple glacial-interglacial cycles, Africa is the only continent where classic refugia models can be formulated and tested to examine and describe changing patterns of past distributions and human phylogeographies. The potential role of refugia has frequently been acknowledged in the Late Pleistocene palaeoanthropological literature, yet explicit identification of potential refugia has been limited by the patchy nature of palaeoenvironmental and archaeological records, and the low temporal resolution of climate or ecological models. Here, we apply potential climatic thresholds on human habitation, rooted in ethnographic studies, in combination with high-resolution model datasets for precipitation and biome distributions to identify persistent refugia spanning the Late Pleistocene (130–10 ka). We present two alternate models suggesting that between 27% and 66% of Africa may have provided refugia to Late Pleistocene human populations, and examine variability in precipitation, biome and ecotone distributions within these refugial zones.
This article is part of the theme issue ‘Tropical forests in the deep human past’.
... That trees are largely absent from Afromontane grasslands is incongruous with Whittaker's (1975) temperature/precipitation plane and Clementsian successional theory, accordingly appearing to support the view that anthropogenic fire reduced the widespread forested areas that previously existed. However, recent research supports continuous grass dominance throughout the late Pleistocene (Stewart et al. 2016), despite the more recent introduction of human-altered fire regimes (Archibald et al. 2012;Finch et al. 2021). Hence, the biodiversity and ecosystem processes that exist in the Afromontane grasslands present an ancient and unique ecology; their evolution and persistence is a result of ...
... This vegetation type is part of the Afromontane grassland biome, which is widespread across Africa (Meadows and Linder 1993), although critically endangered in southern Africa (Olson and Dinerstein 1998;Carbut et al. 2011). Afromontane grasslands are an ancient grassland type, which developed from 5.3 to 2.5 MYA, during the late Miocene to early Pleistocene (Fox et al. 2012;Stewart et al. 2016) during periods of low and variable atmospheric CO 2 , increasing temperatures and aridity (Fox et al. 2018) and recurrent natural fires (Morris et al. 2020). The Maloti-Drakensberg Afromontane grasslands host a diverse and unique community of plant species, including 188 angiosperm species that are endemic to the montane belt and reflect its inclusion in the Drakensberg Mountain Centre of plant endemism (Carbutt 2019). ...
Fire has been an integral evolutionary force shaping and maintaining grassy biomes, such as the Afromontane grasslands of South Africa. Afromontane grasslands represent a large carbon reservoir, but it is uncertain how fire affects their long-term C storage. We investigated the effect of fire regime on soil organic C and N (SOC; SON) in a long-term (39-year) burning experiment in the Maloti-Drakensberg Park, South Africa. We compared SOC and SON sampled in 2004 and 2019 from six treatments differing in fire frequency (annual, biennial, five-year, infrequent) and season (spring, autumn). Average SOC increased significantly between 2004 and 2019. Average SON increased slightly, resulting in a significant increase in C:N ratio, indicating that soil organic matter is becoming less N-eutrophic. Importantly, burning annually in spring increased SOC and SON. This unexpected response is attributed to the aluandic (acidic, high organic matter) properties of Drakensberg soils. Burning in autumn did not increase SOC and SON. The lowest C stocks were observed in infrequently burnt plots. Average C sequestration across all fire treatments was 0.30 Mg ha−1 y−1. The observed increase in SOC under frequent fires is contrary to many findings from other studies in grassy ecosystems and notably driven by fire season.
Findlay, N., Manson, A., Cromsigt, J.P., Gordijn, P., Nixon, C., Rietkerk, M., Thibaud, G., Wassen, M.J. and Beest, M.T., 2022. Long-term frequent fires do not decrease topsoil carbon and nitrogen in an Afromontane grassland. African Journal of Range & Forage Science, pp.1-12.
