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More than 3 million Afghans—refugees, regular migrants and irregular migrants—reside in Iran. They are a significant community whose migration and migration aspirations are of international, national and local interest and impact.
The research “Afghans in Iran: Migration Patterns and Aspirations” was conducted in cooperation with the University o...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... 2016 census covered 1.6 million Afghans. Roughly one third (35%) of Afghans were younger than 15 years old, another third (33%) were 15-29 years old and the remaining third (33%) were 30 years old or older (Table 3.1). In other words, two thirds of all Afghans counted in Iran's 2016 census were younger than 30 years of age. ...Context 2
... irregular Afghan migrants were not covered entirely by the census. In the survey, men outnumbered women among regular and irregular migrants (Table 3.2). In 2018, among irregular Afghan migrants who returned from Iran to Afghanistan, 75% were men and 25% were women. ...Context 3
... travel can be very demanding, and it is not always suitable for women travelling alone. The survey respondents' age distribution was as follows: 15-18 years of age (10%); 19-29 years (43%); 30-49 years (33%); 50-64 years (11%); and 65 years or older (3%; see Table 3.2). According to the 2016 Iran Population Census, among Afghans ages 15 and older, 15-29-year-olds made up 49.8% of the population; 30-44-year-olds accounted for 29.5%; 45-59-year-olds made up 14.6%; 60-74-year-olds represented 5.0%; and at those least 75 years old comprised 1.1% (see Table 3.1; Statistical Center of Iran 2016). ...Context 4
... survey respondents' age distribution was as follows: 15-18 years of age (10%); 19-29 years (43%); 30-49 years (33%); 50-64 years (11%); and 65 years or older (3%; see Table 3.2). According to the 2016 Iran Population Census, among Afghans ages 15 and older, 15-29-year-olds made up 49.8% of the population; 30-44-year-olds accounted for 29.5%; 45-59-year-olds made up 14.6%; 60-74-year-olds represented 5.0%; and at those least 75 years old comprised 1.1% (see Table 3.1; Statistical Center of Iran 2016). ...Context 5
... general, among irregular Afghan migrants, the vast majority are younger adults, and the proportion of older individuals is smaller than among regular Afghan migrants and refugees. Refugees elsewhere Regular migrants Irregular migrants All respondents man wom- an all man wom- an all man wom- an all man wom- an all man wom- an all 15-18 years 15 10 13 6 12 9 5 11 8 10 12 10 9 11 10 ...Context 6
... Afghan respondents had stayed in Iran for decades, whereas others had arrived only recently (see Table 3.3). Two out of three respondents (67%) were born in Afghanistan, and one out of three (33%) were born in Iran. ...Context 7
... irregular migrants living in large cities, substantially more (over one out of three, 35%) came to Iran less than five years ago (2015)(2016)(2017)(2018)(2019). Far fewer regular migrants living in large cities (9%) came to Iran less than five years ago, and almost no refugees did so (see Table 3.3). Afghans' arrival years and age relate to the development of different generations of Afghans in Iran, of which four already exist. ...Context 8
... Afghans also intended to transit through Iran to a third country. In general, in all studied groups, a slight majority (51-58% of respondents) initially intended to stay in Iran for a time and then to return to Afghanistan (see Table 3.4). These respondents included individuals who arrived in Iran during the period 1979-2003 and thus could easily receive refugee status. ...Context 9
... reasons for migrating to Iran were most common among the majority (52%) of irregular migrants. Afghans expressed various economic, social and political reasons for choosing Iran over other countries when asked about this topic in a structural question (see Table 3.5). All Afghan groups described the same most significant factors (having very much or much importance) for migrating to Iran: war and insecurity in Afghanistan. ...Context 10
... all respondents, almost one out of three (30%) agreed that they will likely live in Iran for the rest of their lives, one out of three (34%) did not know how to answer this question and slightly more than one out of three (36%) disagreed with this statement. Answers also varied by gender, age, employment, legal status in Afghanistan, etc. (see Table 3.6). Comparing respondents (in 2019) agreeing to stay for the rest of their lives in Iran with those who did not agree on it, those who agreed had more often at least one Iranian friend among their close friends (65% vs. 59%), felt more often Iranians friendly toward him/her (49% vs. 31%) and well-treated in his/her current place in Iran (40% vs. 19%). ...Context 11
... Afghans decided to migrate from Iran eventually. They described various different reasons and impacts when making their migration decisions (see Table 3.7). However, their decisions have not yet been actualised, i.e. all respondents still live in Iran. ...Context 12
... also affects areas in need of workers in heavy industries and construction, such as large cities. According to the 2016 Iran Population Census, the Afghan population accounted for 2.0% of Iran's total population and 95.7% of all foreigners in Iran (see Table 3.8). ...Context 13
... to regulations restricting the presence of foreign nationals in many areas of Iran, almost no Afghans lived in 13 out of 31 provinces. The share of Afghans counted in the census was 1-3% in seven provinces and over 3% in six provinces; the proportion was highest in Qom (7.5%; Table 3.8). Qom hosts a Shia Muslim holy shrine and religious schools (Hawza) in which some Afghans study. ...Context 14
... Afghans selected from a list of Iranian cities as potential living places (Table 3.9). The most-desired cities for living (answering "yes" to the ques-tion) were Mashhad (64%), Tehran (55%) and Isfahan (33%). ...Context 15
... most-desired cities for living (answering "yes" to the ques-tion) were Mashhad (64%), Tehran (55%) and Isfahan (33%). The cities most often mentioned as places the respondents would not like to live (answer "no") were Birjand (73%), Semnan (69%) and Tabriz (68%; see Table 3.9). The respondents' current provinces impacted the answers because many mentioned cities that were in the same provinces where they lived. ...Context 16
... particular, 50-64 and 19-29-year-old refugees from guest settlements wished to migrate to Tehran. Those who least wished to move to Tehran were the oldest regular migrants and the refugees living elsewhere than in guest settlements (see Table 3.10). Again, migration aspirations do not necessarily mean that the respondents would move to Tehran. ...Context 17
... oldest, employed and married irregular migrants most commonly agreed with a wish to go back to Afghanistan. Most respondents who disagreed were refugees from guest settlements: unmarried, 30-49 years old and/or women (see Table 3.11). ...Context 18
... the irregular migrants, those who most agreed with a wish to go back to Afghanistan (50% of respondents) were relatively young employed men, the majority of whom originated from villages in Afghanistan and who came to Iran after 2003. They had family back in Afghanistan, and, initially, they came to Iran with motivations to return home (see Table 3.11). ...Context 19
... regular migrants, most disagreed with a wish to go back to Afghanistan (34% of respondents) were young childless Afghans born in Iranian cities-a third of them had attended university in Iran. Of irregular migrants, those who most disagreed with a wish to go back to Afghanistan (28% of respondents) were young, employed, Afghanistan-born men, who had immediate family back in Afghanistan and who came to Iran after 2003 (see Table 3.11). Planning to migrate to Afghanistan is a further step towards actual migration. ...Context 20
... came to Iran due to unemployment in Afghanistan and possibilities of better earnings in Iran. They had families in Afghanistan and did not wish to remain in Iran or migrate to the EU (see Table 3.12). ...Context 21
... came to Iran to remain there or to migrate to another country, especially the EU. They were highly satisfied with their provinces, such as Mashhad and Tehran (see Table 3.12). Total 32 21 47 276 14 30 56 648 24 33 43 430 36 28 36 309 Men 28 22 50 144 15 30 55 308 24 31 45 208 41 25 34 216 Women 36 20 44 132 12 30 58 334 23 36 41 222 25 33 42 91 15-18 years 44 33 22 9 34 23 43 177 14 26 60 162 17 37 46 57 20 45 35 Y=Yes plan to return; M=maybe plan to return; No=Not plan to return; N=number of respondents ...Context 22
... those who had visited Afghanistan more than five times in the past five years, the majority (56%) planned to return to Afghanistan, and one out of four (25%) did not plan to return there. Of those who had not visited Afghanistan in the past five years, one out of five (19%) planned to return to Afghanistan, and the majority (52%) did not plan to return there (see Table 3.13). ...Context 23
... went there having Turkey as their migration destination, others considered it as a transit country towards on-migration to the EU. In 2019, of the Afghan refugee respondents living in Iran outside the refugee settlements, one out of eight (12%) planned to migrate to Turkey, one out of four (27%) maybe considered it and three out of five (61%) were not planning it (see Table 3.14). Of the regular Afghan migrants, the same amount (12%) planned to migrate to Turkey, three out of ten (30%) maybe considered it and three out of five (60%) were not planning it. ...Context 24
... regular migrant respondents, one out of three (34%) planned (in 2019) to migrate to the EU (37% maybe; 29% not). Of irregular migrant respondents, one out of three (33%) planned (in 2019) to migrate to the EU (20% maybe; 47% not; see Table 3.15). In all, about one out three Afghans thus planned to migrate to the EU; however, the future will show if these plans transform into a real migration. ...Context 25
... respondents also indicated if they would seek residence permits in Finland, where Afghans make up the second-largest refugee community (see Table 3.16). Of all the respondents, almost one out of three (31%) answered yes to this question, more than two out of five (44%) said maybe, one out of five (21%) said no and a few (4%) did not answer. ...Context 26
... 2016 census covered 1.6 million Afghans. Roughly one third (35%) of Afghans were younger than 15 years old, another third (33%) were 15-29 years old and the remaining third (33%) were 30 years old or older (Table 3.1). In other words, two thirds of all Afghans counted in Iran's 2016 census were younger than 30 years of age. ...Context 27
... irregular Afghan migrants were not covered entirely by the census. In the survey, men outnumbered women among regular and irregular migrants (Table 3.2). In 2018, among irregular Afghan migrants who returned from Iran to Afghanistan, 75% were men and 25% were women. ...Context 28
... travel can be very demanding, and it is not always suitable for women travelling alone. The survey respondents' age distribution was as follows: 15-18 years of age (10%); 19-29 years (43%); 30-49 years (33%); 50-64 years (11%); and 65 years or older (3%; see Table 3.2). According to the 2016 Iran Population Census, among Afghans ages 15 and older, 15-29-year-olds made up 49.8% of the population; 30-44-year-olds accounted for 29.5%; 45-59-year-olds made up 14.6%; 60-74-year-olds represented 5.0%; and at those least 75 years old comprised 1.1% (see Table 3.1; Statistical Center of Iran 2016). ...Context 29
... survey respondents' age distribution was as follows: 15-18 years of age (10%); 19-29 years (43%); 30-49 years (33%); 50-64 years (11%); and 65 years or older (3%; see Table 3.2). According to the 2016 Iran Population Census, among Afghans ages 15 and older, 15-29-year-olds made up 49.8% of the population; 30-44-year-olds accounted for 29.5%; 45-59-year-olds made up 14.6%; 60-74-year-olds represented 5.0%; and at those least 75 years old comprised 1.1% (see Table 3.1; Statistical Center of Iran 2016). ...Context 30
... general, among irregular Afghan migrants, the vast majority are younger adults, and the proportion of older individuals is smaller than among regular Afghan migrants and refugees. Refugees elsewhere Regular migrants Irregular migrants All respondents man wom- an all man wom- an all man wom- an all man wom- an all man wom- an all 15-18 years 15 10 13 6 12 9 5 11 8 10 12 10 9 11 10 ...Context 31
... Afghan respondents had stayed in Iran for decades, whereas others had arrived only recently (see Table 3.3). Two out of three respondents (67%) were born in Afghanistan, and one out of three (33%) were born in Iran. ...Context 32
... irregular migrants living in large cities, substantially more (over one out of three, 35%) came to Iran less than five years ago (2015)(2016)(2017)(2018)(2019). Far fewer regular migrants living in large cities (9%) came to Iran less than five years ago, and almost no refugees did so (see Table 3.3). Afghans' arrival years and age relate to the development of different generations of Afghans in Iran, of which four already exist. ...Context 33
... Afghans also intended to transit through Iran to a third country. In general, in all studied groups, a slight majority (51-58% of respondents) initially intended to stay in Iran for a time and then to return to Afghanistan (see Table 3.4). These respondents included individuals who arrived in Iran during the period 1979-2003 and thus could easily receive refugee status. ...Context 34
... reasons for migrating to Iran were most common among the majority (52%) of irregular migrants. Afghans expressed various economic, social and political reasons for choosing Iran over other countries when asked about this topic in a structural question (see Table 3.5). All Afghan groups described the same most significant factors (having very much or much importance) for migrating to Iran: war and insecurity in Afghanistan. ...Context 35
... all respondents, almost one out of three (30%) agreed that they will likely live in Iran for the rest of their lives, one out of three (34%) did not know how to answer this question and slightly more than one out of three (36%) disagreed with this statement. Answers also varied by gender, age, employment, legal status in Afghanistan, etc. (see Table 3.6). Comparing respondents (in 2019) agreeing to stay for the rest of their lives in Iran with those who did not agree on it, those who agreed had more often at least one Iranian friend among their close friends (65% vs. 59%), felt more often Iranians friendly toward him/her (49% vs. 31%) and well-treated in his/her current place in Iran (40% vs. 19%). ...Context 36
... Afghans decided to migrate from Iran eventually. They described various different reasons and impacts when making their migration decisions (see Table 3.7). However, their decisions have not yet been actualised, i.e. all respondents still live in Iran. ...Context 37
... also affects areas in need of workers in heavy industries and construction, such as large cities. According to the 2016 Iran Population Census, the Afghan population accounted for 2.0% of Iran's total population and 95.7% of all foreigners in Iran (see Table 3.8). ...Context 38
... to regulations restricting the presence of foreign nationals in many areas of Iran, almost no Afghans lived in 13 out of 31 provinces. The share of Afghans counted in the census was 1-3% in seven provinces and over 3% in six provinces; the proportion was highest in Qom (7.5%; Table 3.8). Qom hosts a Shia Muslim holy shrine and religious schools (Hawza) in which some Afghans study. ...Context 39
... Afghans selected from a list of Iranian cities as potential living places (Table 3.9). The most-desired cities for living (answering "yes" to the ques-tion) were Mashhad (64%), Tehran (55%) and Isfahan (33%). ...Context 40
... most-desired cities for living (answering "yes" to the ques-tion) were Mashhad (64%), Tehran (55%) and Isfahan (33%). The cities most often mentioned as places the respondents would not like to live (answer "no") were Birjand (73%), Semnan (69%) and Tabriz (68%; see Table 3.9). The respondents' current provinces impacted the answers because many mentioned cities that were in the same provinces where they lived. ...Context 41
... particular, 50-64 and 19-29-year-old refugees from guest settlements wished to migrate to Tehran. Those who least wished to move to Tehran were the oldest regular migrants and the refugees living elsewhere than in guest settlements (see Table 3.10). Again, migration aspirations do not necessarily mean that the respondents would move to Tehran. ...Context 42
... oldest, employed and married irregular migrants most commonly agreed with a wish to go back to Afghanistan. Most respondents who disagreed were refugees from guest settlements: unmarried, 30-49 years old and/or women (see Table 3.11). ...Context 43
... the irregular migrants, those who most agreed with a wish to go back to Afghanistan (50% of respondents) were relatively young employed men, the majority of whom originated from villages in Afghanistan and who came to Iran after 2003. They had family back in Afghanistan, and, initially, they came to Iran with motivations to return home (see Table 3.11). ...Context 44
... regular migrants, most disagreed with a wish to go back to Afghanistan (34% of respondents) were young childless Afghans born in Iranian cities-a third of them had attended university in Iran. Of irregular migrants, those who most disagreed with a wish to go back to Afghanistan (28% of respondents) were young, employed, Afghanistan-born men, who had immediate family back in Afghanistan and who came to Iran after 2003 (see Table 3.11). Planning to migrate to Afghanistan is a further step towards actual migration. ...Context 45
... came to Iran due to unemployment in Afghanistan and possibilities of better earnings in Iran. They had families in Afghanistan and did not wish to remain in Iran or migrate to the EU (see Table 3.12). ...Context 46
... came to Iran to remain there or to migrate to another country, especially the EU. They were highly satisfied with their provinces, such as Mashhad and Tehran (see Table 3.12). Total 32 21 47 276 14 30 56 648 24 33 43 430 36 28 36 309 Men 28 22 50 144 15 30 55 308 24 31 45 208 41 25 34 216 Women 36 20 44 132 12 30 58 334 23 36 41 222 25 33 42 91 15-18 years 44 33 22 9 34 23 43 177 14 26 60 162 17 37 46 57 20 45 35 Y=Yes plan to return; M=maybe plan to return; No=Not plan to return; N=number of respondents ...Context 47
... those who had visited Afghanistan more than five times in the past five years, the majority (56%) planned to return to Afghanistan, and one out of four (25%) did not plan to return there. Of those who had not visited Afghanistan in the past five years, one out of five (19%) planned to return to Afghanistan, and the majority (52%) did not plan to return there (see Table 3.13). ...Context 48
... went there having Turkey as their migration destination, others considered it as a transit country towards on-migration to the EU. In 2019, of the Afghan refugee respondents living in Iran outside the refugee settlements, one out of eight (12%) planned to migrate to Turkey, one out of four (27%) maybe considered it and three out of five (61%) were not planning it (see Table 3.14). Of the regular Afghan migrants, the same amount (12%) planned to migrate to Turkey, three out of ten (30%) maybe considered it and three out of five (60%) were not planning it. ...Context 49
... regular migrant respondents, one out of three (34%) planned (in 2019) to migrate to the EU (37% maybe; 29% not). Of irregular migrant respondents, one out of three (33%) planned (in 2019) to migrate to the EU (20% maybe; 47% not; see Table 3.15). In all, about one out three Afghans thus planned to migrate to the EU; however, the future will show if these plans transform into a real migration. ...Context 50
... respondents also indicated if they would seek residence permits in Finland, where Afghans make up the second-largest refugee community (see Table 3.16). Of all the respondents, almost one out of three (31%) answered yes to this question, more than two out of five (44%) said maybe, one out of five (21%) said no and a few (4%) did not answer. ...Citations
... Furthermore, minors might have been sent to the EU to pave a way for the rest of family through family repatriation. They need to travel via Turkey, but very few Afghans in Iran intend to remain in Turkey (Jauhiainen & Eyvazlu 2020). Leaving Afghanistan or Iran for the EU is not a voluntary decision for all Afghans, including the young adults. ...
... Some may enter Turkey easily, for example by air, even without a visa. Other may have to cross the Turkish border irregularly, for example through the mountains, making this journey difficult and sometimes dangerous, especially for Afghans who come from Iran (see Dimitriadi 2018;Kuschminder 2018;Jauhiainen et al. 2020; Section 3.1). Besides having risks on being caught and detained by the authorities, during their journeys these migrants are also often exploited at work and sexual violence is acted upon male and female migrants (Belanteri et al. 2020). ...
... The distance from the Afghanistan border to Lesvos is several thousand kilometers; one needs to cross international borders, and many need to use irregular migration modes. Furthermore, many need to remain in Iran from a day to months or even longer before crossing the border to Turkey (see Jauhiainen et al. 2020). However, over a third (39%) spent more than two years on the journey. ...
Asylum Seekers and Undocumented Migrants in Lesvos, Greece, 2020–2022 focuses on who the asylum seekers and other asylum-related migrants were on the Eastern Mediterranean island of Lesvos in Greece and what their physical and digital (im)mobilities were, including their migration patterns and aspirations to reach Lesvos and further destinations, their daily lives in the Mavrovouni reception and identification center, and their Internet and social media uses in their country of origin, during their asylum-related journeys and in Lesvos.
The research report here covers the asylum-related migration developments in Lesvos from early 2020 to summer 2022. Also discussed here are general developments in asylum-related migration in the Greek archipelago and at the EU borderlands from the 2010s to mid-2022.
... As evidenced by our survey, among Afghan male respondents, 64% were employed, as were fewer (30%) Afghan female respondents (Table 2). However, in Iran in general, substantially fewer (5%) adult foreign female nationals are employed, including female Afghan refugees (8%) in Iran outside the GTs [12]. In general, foreign female nationals, including Afghans, cannot register for permission to work in Iran unless they are heads of the household or have disabled husbands. ...
This article studies the self-management of guest towns (GTs) in Iran and the development of Afghan refugees' employment and entrepreneurship in these settlements.
No earlier research exists on refugee entrepreneurialism in GTs in Iran. The research is based on surveys (546 refugee respondents), interviews (35 refugees) and observations in four GTs in Iran, and interviews (12) with key public authorities related to Afghan refugees in Iran.
Of the nearly one million Afghan refugees in Iran, approximately 30,000 reside in 20 GTs, each having up to a few thousand inhabitants. Following a decrease in international support for Afghan refugees and national privatisation policies, the Iranian government decided in 2003 that GTs needed to be self-managed to be financially self-sustainable by their Afghan refugee inhabitants. The motivation and necessity generated by GT self-management led to the increase, diversification, and profit orientation in Afghan refugees' economic activities in the GTs. The GT refugee councils facilitated internal entrepreneurship fostered externally by state policies, such as the GTs' obligation to become economically self-sustainable and the provision of tax exemptions and other incentives to GTs. A larger number of Afghan refugees (including women) obtained employment, various entrepreneurial trajectories emerged, and several businesses connected the GTs to the external economy.
