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ABSTRACT: Compact tungsten wire array Z -pinches imploded on the Z generator at Sandia National Laboratories have proven to be a powerful reproducible X-ray source. Wire arrays have also been used in dynamic hohlraum radiation flow experiments and as an intense K-shell source, while the generator has been used extensively for isentropic compression experiments. A problem shared by all these applications is current loss, preventing the ~20-MA drive current from being reliably coupled to the load. This potentially degrades performance, while uncertainties in how this loss is described limit our predictive capability. We present details of a transmission line equivalent circuit model of the Z generator for use in driving 3-D resistive MHD simulations of wire array loads. We describe how power delivery to these loads is affected by multiple current losses and demonstrate how these may be calculated or reconstructed from available electrical data for inclusion in the circuit model. We then demonstrate how the circuit model and MHD load calculation may be combined to infer an additional current loss that has not been directly diagnosed for wire arrays.
IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science 05/2010; · 1.17 Impact Factor
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K.W. Struve,
M.E. Cuneo,
J.-P. Davis,
S.F. Glover,
K.R. LeChien,
J.J. Leckbee,
M.G. Mazarakis,
G.R. McKee,
J.L. Porter, M.E. Savage,
B.S. Stoltzfus,
W.A. Stygar,
J.R. Woodworth
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ABSTRACT: In the presentation we present a survey of the application driven development of new high-current (25+ MA), fast risetime (~ 100 ns) pulsed-power technology at the Sandia National Laboratories (SNL), but this paper only focuses on megagauss magnetic field driver development in order to preserve first-publication rights for the co-authors with the other technologies. Thus in the presentation we note that the Z accelerator has fired nearly 200 shots since the upgrade, and is now being operated at 4 to 5 shots per week. Initial failures after the upgrade have been resolved with improvements in the 6-MV laser-triggered switches, the oil water barriers, and the insulator stack. With the upgrade Z is also able to produce tailored current profiles for isentropic compression of materials using staggered timing of the laser triggered switches. We also describe the Linear Transformer Driver (LTD) technology that is being investigated as a potential follow-on pulsed power technology for the design of the next larger machine that has a high repetition-rate (up to 0.1 Hz) capability. Ten 1-MA LTD modules have been fabricated and are being setup as a 1 MV, 1 MA sub-module prototype. A lower-current, more compact LTD design is also being tested for radiography applications. For both of these designs 200-kV, 25-kA gas switches are being developed and tested to both increase switch lifetime and to minimize cost. A compact, portable, 2-MA, 2 ¿sec driver, which we describe in this paper, is being developed to drive single-turn magnetic field coils for laser-plasma experiments in vacuum.
Pulsed Power Conference, 2009 IET European; 10/2009
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ABSTRACT: The design and implementation of a 120 GHz monostatic tracking interferometer with near diffraction limited focal spot size, used to measure line-averaged plasma density in the source of a plasma opening switch (POS), is described. Physical dimensions of the switch source place an upper limit on the focal spot size. Focusing quasioptics utilize a standard pyramidal horn and a pair of cylindrical lenses that are easily fabricated. The combination of the two cylindrical lenses transforms the asymmetric and approximately Gaussian beam produced by the pyramidal horn into a small focal spot. The circuit utilizes a tracking receiver configuration to track oscillator frequency drifts, which allow for full heterodyne quadrature operation, while avoiding the added complexity of phase or frequency locking of the sources. In order to reduce system noise in the POS pulsed power environment, all sources and amplifiers are battery powered and other noise-reducing techniques are employed. Finally, an improved Gaussian optics design methodology, which tracks the phase center of the Gaussian beam, is proposed. While not critical to this application, this method may yield improvements in systems with short focal lengths.
The Review of scientific instruments 10/2008; 79(9):093509. · 1.52 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: With the successful completion of its refurbishment the Z machine at Sandia is now routinely operating with currents over 26 MA into various loads. Now that the machine is operating we can measure current and voltage at various locations throughout the machine and compare with circuit code predictions. These measurements have led to improvements in the model that provide a more accurate predictive capability. In this paper we describe the full-machine circuit model of Z, and indicate how machine parameters are derived. Many were determined with commercially-available field calculation software, but parameters for switches and other non-linear elements were determined empirically. We show comparisons of circuit code predictions with machine performance. Finally, we show where improvements to the model can yet be made.
IEEE International Power Modulators and High Voltage Conference, Proceedings of the 2008; 07/2008
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D.E. Bliss,
W.T. Clark,
K.R. LeChien,
J.E. Maenchen, M.E. Savage,
M.E. Sceiford,
B.S. Stoltzfus,
K.W. Struve,
W.A. Stygar,
J.R. Woodworth,
D. Dalton,
P.E. Wakeland
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ABSTRACT: Summary form only given. The Z pulsed power driver at Sandia National Laboratories is in the process of being refurbished as part of the ZR project to improve reliability and increase the energy delivered to the load. The new ZR gas switches currently close at a peak voltage of 6.2 MV to generate a projected 26 MA load current as compared to 4.6 MV and ~20 MA for the old switches on Z. The Laser Trigger System (LTS) has been redesigned to meet requirements that it trigger this higher voltage switch with comparable optic lifetime (>100 shots) and jitter (1sigma < 5ns) to the old Z switches. We will discuss critical design features of the LTS and show performance results from the Z20 test bed which was used to study the operation of a single ZR module.
Plasma Science, 2007. ICOPS 2007. IEEE 34th International Conference on; 07/2007
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ABSTRACT: The Laser Triggered Switch Program at Sandia National Laboratories is an intensive development study to understand and optimize the laser triggered gas switch (LTGS) for the Z-Refurbishment (ZR) project. The laser triggered gas switch is the final command-triggered switch in the machine. Reliability and performance of the switch is crucial.
Pulsed Power Conference, 2007 16th IEEE International; 07/2007
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ABSTRACT: An important consideration for the success of the ZR project, refurbishing the Z accelerator at Sandia National Laboratories, is limiting current loss in the vacuum section, ideally to no worse than the 5 – 10% seen on Z. The primary source for this loss is electrons flowing into the post-hole convolute from the four magnetically insulated transmission lines (MITLs). The MITLs on ZR have larger gaps to reduce the electron flow to values comparable to Z when operating at ∼40% higher voltage and ∼30% higher current. Electron flow in the vacuum section is analyzed with electromagnetic, particle-in-cell simulations, using two complementary simulation setups. First, the exact MITL profiles are modeled with high-resolution 2-D simulations out to large radius (typically r = 60 cm), providing accurate values for the electron flow into the convolute. Second, the convolute is modeled in 3-D, but with MITLs extending out only to r ∼ 30 cm. The 3-D MITL geometry is modified to provide the same electron flow into the convolute as the 2-D simulations. The 3-D simulations have detailed diagnostics for current loss and surface deposition heating in the convolute.
Pulsed Power Conference, 2007 16th IEEE International; 07/2007
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P.E. Wakeland,
J.P. Corley,
K.C. Hodge,
D.W. Guthrie,
V. Anaya,
Z.R. Wallace,
T.A. Thompson,
G.A. Feltz,
R.A. Maier,
K.R. LeChien, M.E. Savage,
D.F. Susan,
R.P. Grant,
J.A. Van Den Avyle
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ABSTRACT: The Z machine at Sandia National Laboratories is a thirty six module pulsed power driver utilized for the study of inertial confinement fusion, isentropic compression experiments, and high density physics. Currently it is undergoing an upgrade, called Z-Refurbishment (ZR). The upgraded Z pulsed power driver requires thirty six gas switches to be capable of low jitter high voltage switching, to deliver energy to the load. The switches must remain open as voltage rises in ∼one microsecond, then close with a few nanosecond jitter upon arrival of the laser pulse. Switch performance is directly related to component materials since switches must routinely withstand a 6.25 MV, 750 kA pulsed power environment and perform reliably upon each command fire. Switch lifetime is primarily influenced by insulator flashover and electrode degradation. Early in the program the most high profile problem was random flashing of the insulator housing. Triple point shielding, cleaning procedures and an isolation window that separated the gas switch volume from the laser can volume were implemented which reduced housing flashes, to problems attributed to material debris. Electrode materials were studied in an attempt to optimize switch lifetime with respect to erosion rate, housing flashes associated with material debris and to reduce degradation of laser optics that are in close proximity to the switch. Theories on electrode ablation have contributed it to enhancing fields in the trigger section and flashing of the cascade housing. Electrode materials investigated included, tungsten-copper, stainless steel, molybdenum, tantalum and brass. SEM imaging was utilized to examine effects of arc damage for different materials. SEM imaging is also being used in attempts to understand preconditioning of electrodes and early shot switch performance.
Pulsed Power Conference, 2007 16th IEEE International; 07/2007
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M. E. Savage,
L. F. Bennett,
D. E. Bliss,
W. T. Clark,
R.S. Coats,
J. M. Elizondo,
K. R. LeChien,
H. C. Harjes,
J. M. Lehr,
J. E. Maenchen, [......],
L.K. Warne,
J. R. Woodworth,
C. W. Mendel,
K.R. Prestwich,
R. W. Shoup,
D. L. Johnson,
J. P. Corley,
K. C. Hodge,
T. C. Wagoner,
P. E. Wakeland
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ABSTRACT: The Z pulsed power driver [1] at Sandia National Laboratories is used to develop high energy density z-pinch x-ray sources for inertial confinement fusion research and radiation effects testing, and to drive megabar pressures in material samples for equation of state studies. The entire pulsed power system is in the process of being replaced, improving reliability and increasing the energy delivered to the load.
Pulsed Power Conference, 2007 16th IEEE International; 07/2007
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ABSTRACT: Summary form only given. The electron flow in pulsed power systems is typically measured as the difference between the anode and cathode currents. For small fractions of mega-ampere currents the resolution of the diagnostic equipment becomes suspect. A new method for extracting precise electron flow measurements has been proposed which allows for the direct measurement of the electron current flow providing a better gauge for the validity of the computer simulated results.
Plasma Science, 2007. ICOPS 2007. IEEE 34th International Conference on; 07/2007
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ABSTRACT: Summary form given only. The refurbishment of the Z accelerator at Sandia National Laboratories, the "ZR project" , is scheduled for completion in June 2007. The vacuum section will be topologically similar to Z, but with new hardware for the four magnetically insulated transmission lines (MITLs), and the double post-hole convolute. It must operate reliably at ~40% higher voltage and ~30% higher current than on Z. On Z, there are late-time current losses (5 -10%) in the post-hole convolute. Earlier 3-D particle-in-cell (PIC) simulations of the Z convolute show that electrons flowing into the convolute from the MITLs are lost to a very small area of the anode at magnetic null regions. We believe that gap closure effects of dense plasmas formed in these regions are responsible for the observed current loss. The ZR vacuum section is designed to limit the electron flow into the convolute from the MITLs, and the resulting anode heating, to be no worse than on Z today. It is currently not possible to simulate the entire vacuum section of Z with a single 3-D PIC simulation. Instead, we iterate between two related setups. First, we model the four MITLs with very high resolution 2-D simulations from the convolute radius out to large radius (r = 60 cm). In this system, the 2-D MITLs are coupled at their inner radius with a transmission line model of the convolute. Second, we model the convolute in 3-D. In this system, the MITLs are necessarily zoned much more coarsely than the 2-D simulations, and only extend out to a more limited radius. The 2-D MITL simulations provide reliable values for the electron flow current into the convolute. The new simulations presented here improve on earlier results^ by modeling all four levels with 2-D PIC simulations simultaneously. The new 3-D simulations are a significant advance beyond previous work". We will present the first comparison of the anode heating in the convolute between Z and ZR.
Plasma Science, 2007. ICOPS 2007. IEEE 34th International Conference on; 07/2007
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ABSTRACT: Summary form only given. The Laser Triggered Switch Program at Sandia National Laboratories is an intensive development study to optimize and improve the laser triggered gas switch (LTGS) for the Z-Refurbishment (ZR) project. The laser triggered gas switch is the final command-triggered switch in the machine, and reliability and performance of the switch is crucial. A modified LTGS trigger section with optical viewing windows perpendicular to laser propagation is used to analyze a laser induced plasma spark in SF6 gas in order to quantity parameters such as spark length and plasma temperature. The laser spark is created through a focusing lens by the fourth-harmonic (266nm) of a 5ns FWHM pulsed Nd: YAG laser with 30mJ maximum energy output. Several diagnostic methods are used to analyze the laser spark. Visible spark length measurements are made using a lens system mounted to a CCD camera at gas pressures ranging from sub-atmosphere to 4 atmospheres. Differing f-number lenses are compared to determine optimal visible spark length for a given gas pressure. Spark length is used as an indicator of the ability of a switch to trigger at a given gas pressure and charge voltage. Typically, the visible spark length must be at least 30% of the electrode gap spacing to produce acceptable switch run-time and jitter. Experiments have shown that for switch operating pressures near 4 atmospheres, a dramatic increase in spark length (~12mm to 24mm) is noted between f/9.8 and f/14.8 lenses (500mm and 750mm respectively) while the increase in spark length slows markedly (~24mm to 30.5mm) with an increase in lens focal length to f/19.7 (lm).
Plasma Science, 2007. ICOPS 2007. IEEE 34th International Conference on; 07/2007
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K.R. LeChien,
D.E. Bliss,
J.M. Lehr,
J.H. Maenchen,
D.H. McDaniel, M.E. Savage,
K.W. Struve,
J.R. Woodworth,
J.P. Corley,
K.C. Hodge,
P.E. Wakeland,
K.R. Prestwich
[show abstract]
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ABSTRACT: Summary form only given. The Z machine at Sandia National Laboratories is presently undergoing an upgrade, called Z-Refurbishment (ZR), that is aimed at improving capacity, precision, and capability to nearly all of its pulsed power components, including its thirty six laser-triggered gas switches (LTGS). Voltage and current requirements for the ZR LTGS have increased 25% from the onset of the ZR program, with no allowable increase to the physical footprint (or inductance) for the device. Initial design studies indicated that a total machine peak current of 26 MA could be achieved with each LTGS operating at 5 MV and 600 kA. Increases in the final design inductance in the transition from vertical water transmission lines to horizontal magnetically insulated transmission lines, higher inductance in vacuum from changes in the load position for improved diagnostic access, and conservatism in the vacuum power How requirements caused the LTGS operations goals to become 6.25 MV and 750 kA for a total machine peak current of 26 MA. Tests of the proposed switch design at 5 MV with a resistive load demonstrated jitter (<4 ns), voltage precision (range 0.05 -1.5 percent), and lifetime (mean 220 shots), which were all within the initial ZR design goals. The prefire rate was 1.2% which was substantially higher than desired for ZR. Subsequent tests on a single ZR engineering module as the operating voltage increased resulted in random housing flashovers, difficulties in consistently triggering the switch and even higher prefire rate. This paper summarizes LTGS design changes and new cleaning/assembly protocols that were developed to meet evolving ZR goals. Performance of LTGS at 5.2 MV and 6.1 MV on the engineering module are discussed. The data are utilized to project performance on ZR.
Plasma Science, 2007. ICOPS 2007. IEEE 34th International Conference on; 07/2007
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ABSTRACT: High current z pinches are used for a variety of high energy density physics applications, including inertial confinement fusion research. Present state of the art in single-pulse drivers can deliver twenty megamperes through an imploding plasma load; upon stagnation on the axis the plasma radiates more than a megajoule of energy in a few nanoseconds. Emphasis on fast plasma implosions (one hundred nanoseconds or less) means that the driver must deliver megajoules into vacuum at several mega volts from a driver with impedance that is a fraction of an ohm. The upgrade to the Z driver requires high reliability operation with as much as 6 mega volts peak on the water-vacuum interface. Cost and inductance (efficiency) are important, and make highly stressed vacuum insulators desirable. This paper describes the requirements and design for the vacuum insulator of the upgraded Z driver. The insulator stack is required to deliver 4 megajoules of electrical energy to the load within one hundred nanoseconds. It is desired to operate the upgraded Z driver once every few hours; hence reliability of the vacuum insulator is a critical design parameter.
Discharges and Electrical Insulation in Vacuum, 2006. ISDEIV '06. International Symposium on; 10/2006
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ABSTRACT: Pulsed-power systems operating in the terawatt regime must deal with large electron flows in vacuum transmission lines. In most parts of these transmission lines the electrons are constrained by the self-magnetic field to flow parallel to the conductors. In very low impedance systems, such as those used to drive Z-pinch radiation sources, the currents from multiple transmission lines are added together. This addition necessarily involves magnetic nulls that connect the positive and negative electrodes. The resultant local loss of magnetic insulation results in electron losses at the anode in the vicinity of the nulls. The lost current due to the magnetic null might or might not be appreciable. In some cases the lost current due to the null is not large, but is spatially localized, and may create a gas and plasma release from the anode that can lead to an excessive loss, and possibly to catastrophic damage to the hardware. In this paper we describe an analytic model that uses one geometric parameter (aside from straightforward hardware size measurements) that determines the loss to the anode, and the extent of the loss region when the driving source and load are known. The parameter can be calculated in terms of the magnetic field in the region of the null calculated when no electron flow is present. The model is compared to some experimental data, and to simulations of several different hardware geometries, including some cases with multiple nulls, and unbalanced feeds.
Physics of Plasmas 04/2006; 13(4):043105-043105-14. · 2.15 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: An investigation of the HV vacuum breakdown between polished, powder coated, and e-beam treated 304L and 316L stainless steel electrodes is described. Tests were performed with 160 ns, 1-cos(ωt), and 260 ns flat-top voltage pulses of up to 500 kV. The high voltage hold-off for the 160 ns pulse was ∼130 kV/mm for 2 mm gaps for 80-mm diameter polished stainless steel electrodes, and 15% lower for 120-mm polished and e-beam treated electrodes. The longer 260 ns pulse gave 15% lower hold-off for 80-mm electrodes. These electrodes showed voltage hold-off that scaled as the square root of the gap between 0.5 and 7 mm. This total voltage effect has been interpreted in the past as due to accelerated particles. We analyze our data in terms of this mechanism and show that only nanoparticles of molecular size could be responsible. We also discuss how ions or background gas could affect the breakdown thresholds but existing models do not predict square root dependence. We test how extremely fine powers affect hold-off and show that contaminated surfaces have relatively constant reduced breakdown E-fields that intersect the clean-electrode voltage-dependent breakdown at critical gaps defined by the type and quantity of contamination. The hold-off was ∼55 and 65 kV/mm with copper powder on the cathode and anode for 2 to 6.5 mm gaps, respectively, and ∼95 and 75 kV/mm for talc powder on the cathode and anode for gaps <3.5 and 6.5 mm. Optical diagnostics show no difference in the light emission from clean and contaminated electrode breakdown arcs.
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation 03/2006; · 1.09 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The Z machine at Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) is the world's largest and most powerful laboratory X-ray source. The Z Refurbishment Project (ZR) is presently underway to provide an improved precision, more shot capacity, and a higher current capability. The ZR upgrade has a total output current requirement of at least 26 MA for a 100-ns standard Z-pinch load. To accomplish this with minimal impact on the surrounding hardware, the 60 high-energy discharge capacitors in each of the existing 36 Marx generators must be replaced with identical size units but with twice the capacitance. Before the six-month shut down and transition from Z to ZR occurs, 2500 of these capacitors will be delivered. We chose to undertake an ambitious vendor qualification program to reduce the risk of not meeting ZR performance goals, to encourage the pulsed-power industry to revisit the design and development of high- energy discharge capacitors, and to meet the cost and delivery schedule within the ZR project plans. Five manufacturers were willing to fabricate and sell SNL samples of six capacitors each to be evaluated. The 8000-shot qualification test phase of the evaluation effort is now complete. This paper summarizes how the 0.279 $,times,$ 0.356 $,times,$ 0.635-m (11 $,times,$ 14 $,times,$ 25-in) stainless steel can, Scyllac-style insulator bushing, 2.65- $mu F$ , $≪30mathchar"702D nH$ , 100-kV, 35%-reversal capacitor lifetime specifications were determined, briefly describes the nominal 260-kJ test facility configuration, presents the test results of the most successful candidates, and discusses acceptance testing protocols that balance available resources against performance, cost, and schedule risk. We also summarize the results of our accelerated lifetime testing of the selected General Atomics P/N 32896 capacitor. We have completed lifetime tests with twelve capacitors at 100 kV and with fourteen capacitors at 110-kV charge voltage. The means of the fitted Weibull distributions for these two cases are about 17 000 and 10 000 shots, respectively. As a result of this effort plus the rigorous vendor testing prior to shipping, we are confident in the high reliability of thes-
e capacitors and have acquired information pertaining to their lifetime dependence on the operating voltage. One result of the analysis is that, for these capacitors, lifetime scales inversely with voltage to the $6.28 pm 0.91$ power, over this 100 to 110-kV voltage range. Accepting the assumptions leading to this outcome allows us to predict the overall ZR system Marx generator capacitor reliability at the expected lower operating voltage of about 85 kV.
IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science 09/2005; · 1.17 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The Z driver at Sandia National Laboratories delivers one to two megajoules of electromagnetic energy inside its ~10 cm radius final feed in 100 ns. The high current (~20 MA) at small diameter produces magnetic pressures well above yield strengths for metals. The metal conductors stay in place due to inertia long enough to deliver current to the load. Within milliseconds however, fragments of metal escape the load region at high velocity. Much of the hardware and diagnostics inside the vacuum chamber is protected from this debris by blast shields with small view ports, and fast-closing valves. The water-vacuum insulator requires different protection because the transmission line debris shield should not significantly raise the inductance or perturb the self- magnetically insulated electron flow. This report shows calculations and results from a design intended to protect the insulator assembly.
Pulsed Power Conference, 2005 IEEE; 07/2005
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ABSTRACT: The ZR project [1] to refurbish the Z accelerator at Sandia National Laboratories [2] is scheduled for completion in FY06. An important factor for the success of ZR is limiting current losses in the vacuum section. On Z today, late-time losses of 5 - 10% are observed, which are known to occur in the post-hole convolute region. The most direct way to mitigate these losses is to limit the electron flow into the convolute from the magnetically insulated transmission lines (MITLs). The key design consideration is the radial profile of the MITL gap. The MITL gap profile is a compromise between two competing constraints - limiting both the electron flow into the convolute and the MITL inductance. Larger gaps reduce the flow, while smaller gaps reduce the inductance. 2-D particle-in-cell (PIC) simulations suggest that the current Z A-level MITL profile is close to optimum, in the sense of minimizing the flow for its total inductance. For ZR, operating at ~40% higher voltage and ~30% higher current, the decision was made to limit the flow into the convolute to be no larger than on Z today. Time-accurate simulations, with a Z-pinch load, show that profiles based on Z, but with 20% larger gaps meet this condition. It does not appear to be possible to meet the flow limitation without this increase in inductance.
Pulsed Power Conference, 2005 IEEE; 07/2005
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R.W. Shoup, M.E. Savage,
J.M. Elizondo,
L.F. Bennett,
W.A. Stygar,
H.C. Harjes,
A.C. Owen,
T.D. Pointon,
M. Pasik,
B.S. Stoltzfus,
K.W. Struve,
D.H. McDaniel
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ABSTRACT: Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) is developing ZR, a 26-MA driver for z-pinch experiments, by replacing most of the pulsed power hardware presently on Z with hardware of a new design. The accelerator was modeled using the transmission line code, Bertha, to determine the time-dependent voltage and current waveforms between stages in each of 36 modules. Bertha is an NRL-developed transmission line code. The design of the vacuum insulator stack was dictated by the drive voltages on each of four levels, the electric field stresses on the grading rings, insulator rings, and A-K rings, the field grading on each level, the interface requirements of the water lines and magnetically insulated transmission lines (MITLs), and the machine operations and maintenance requirements. The electrostatic analysis codes, ELECTRO (2D/RS) and MAXWELL (3D), were used to optimize the shape of the grading rings, insulator rings, anode and cathode conductors, and the MITL anode and cathode flares. The dynamic 3D computer codes, QUICKSILVER and EMPHASIS/NEVADA were used to optimize the designs of the stack interface at the MITL and water convolute connections, respectively. This paper will describe the insulator stack design and present the results of the electrostatic analyses.
Pulsed Power Conference, 2005 IEEE; 07/2005
