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ABSTRACT: Ion channels are targets for many naturally occurring toxins and small-molecule drugs. Despite great progress in the X-ray crystallography of ion channels, we still do not have a complete understanding of the atomistic mechanisms of channel modulation by ligands. In particular, the importance of the simultaneous interaction of permeant ions with the ligand and the channel protein has not been the focus of much attention. Considering these interactions often allows one to rationalize the highly diverse experimental data within the framework of relatively simple structural models. This has been illustrated in earlier studies on the action of local anesthetics, sodium channel activators, as well as blockers of potassium and calcium channels. Here, we discuss the available data with a view to understanding the use-, voltage-, and current carrying cation-dependence of the ligand action, paradoxes in structure-activity relationships, and effects of mutations in these ion channels.
Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 01/2013; · 10.93 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The X-ray structure of the bacterial sodium channel NavAb provides a new template for the study of sodium and calcium channels. Unlike potassium channels, NavAb contains P2 helices in the outer-pore region. Because the sequence similarity between eukaryotic and prokaryotic sodium channels in this region is poor, the structural similarity is unclear. We analyzed it by using experimental data on tetrodotoxin block of sodium channels. Key tetrodotoxin-binding residues are outer carboxylates in repeats I, II, and IV, three positions downstream from the selectivity-filter residues. In a NavAb-based model of Nav1 channels derived from the sequence alignment without insertions/deletions, the outer carboxylates did not face the pore and therefore did not interact with tetrodotoxin. The hypothesis that the evolutionary appearance of Nav1 channels involved point deletions in an ancestral channel between the selectivity filter and the outer carboxylates allowed building of a NavAb-based model with tetrodotoxin-channel contacts similar to those proposed previously. This hypothesis also allowed us to reproduce in Nav1 the folding-stabilizing contacts between long-side chain residues in P1 and P2, which are seen in NavAb. The NavAb-based inner-pore model of Nav1 preserved major features of our previous KcsA-based models, including the access pathway for ligands through the repeat III/IV interface and their interactions with specific residues. Thus, structural properties of eukaryotic voltage-gated sodium channels that are suggested by functional data were reproduced in the NavAb-based models built by using the unaltered template structure but with adjusted sequence alignment. Sequences of eukaryotic calcium channels aligned with NavAb without insertions/deletions, which suggests that NavAb is a promising basis for the modeling of calcium channels.
Molecular pharmacology 04/2012; 82(1):97-104. · 4.53 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The NMDA type of ionotropic glutamate receptors plays a unique role in synaptic functions because of high permeability for calcium and because of a voltage-dependent block by endogenous Mg(2+). Activity and voltage dependence of the NMDA receptor channel block by organic cations are strongly affected by competition with magnesium ions for the binding site in the channel pore. It complicates prediction of action of NMDA receptor channel blockers in vivo. In the present work we studied the NMDA receptor channel block in the presence of Mg(2+) by several organic blockers with different characteristics of voltage dependence and mechanism of action. The action of NMDA receptor channel antagonists was studied in native NMDA receptors of hippocampus CA1 pyramidal neurons isolated from rat brain slices. It was demonstrated that the IC(50) values of NMDA receptor channel blockers at -30 mV are increased 1.5-5 times compared with magnesium-free conditions. The voltage dependence of the channel block is decreased, abolished or even inversed in the presence of magnesium. Although simple competition between magnesium ion and organic channel blockers provides a general explanation of the observed effects, certain disagreements were revealed. Diversity in Mg(2+) effects on the NMDAR channel block by different organic cations reported herein likely reflects interaction of NMDAR channel blockers with additional binding site(s) and suggests that individual analysis in the presence of Mg(2+) is required for newly developed NMDAR channel blocking drugs.
Neuropharmacology 04/2012; 62(5-6):2078-85. · 4.81 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Binding of argiotoxin in the closed state of Ca(2+)-permeable AMPA receptor channels was studied using electrophysiological and molecular modeling approaches. Experimental study unambiguously revealed that argiotoxin is trapped in the closed AMPA receptor channels after agonist dissociation. Docking of the argiotoxin to the channel model based on recently published X-ray structure demonstrated that the drug can be effectively accommodated in the cavity of the closed channel only if the terminal moiety of the molecule penetrates in the narrow portion of the pore below the selectivity filter. Combining these results, we conclude that the selectivity filter of the AMPA receptor channels is not sterically occluded in the closed state.
Biochemistry 08/2011; 50(38):8213-20. · 3.42 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: This study examined the blocking action of the selective channel blocker of calcium-permeable (CP) AMPA receptors, N(1)-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)pentane-1,5-diaminium bromide (IEM-1925), on excitatory postsynaptic currents in rat neostriatal and cortical neurons and in fly neuromuscular junctions. In both preparations, the blocking of CP-AMPA receptor currents increased along with the stimulation frequency. The continuous presence of kainate, which activates AMPA receptors, in the external solution also caused an enhanced blocking effect. Likewise, decrease of the synaptic release by lowering calcium concentration resulted in significant reduction of the blocking action. The activity dependence of the block is explained using the guarded receptor model. The drug molecule can only bind if the channel is open. After the channel has closed, the drug molecule remains trapped inside. However, the trapped molecule slowly egresses from closed channels to the cytoplasm. The total block effect is determined by the equilibrium between accumulation of the drug in the open channels and relief from the closed channels. Therefore, the conditions that favor the open state result in enhanced inhibition. This significant finding reveals a new way to modulate CP-AMPAR mediated transmission using a physiologically relevant approach. Moreover, it allows the involvement of CP-AMPARs in the physiological and pathological processes - such as high-frequency synaptic activity or increase of the steady-state glutamate concentration - to be examined.
The Journal of Physiology 01/2011; · 4.72 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: In the absence of x-ray structures of sodium and calcium channels their homology models are used to rationalize experimental data and design new experiments. A challenge is to model the outer-pore region that folds differently from potassium channels. Here we report a new model of the outer-pore region of the NaV1.4 channel, which suggests roles of highly conserved residues around the selectivity filter. The model takes from our previous study (Tikhonov, D. B., and Zhorov, B. S. (2005) Biophys. J. 88, 184-197) the general disposition of the P-helices, selectivity filter residues, and the outer carboxylates, but proposes new intra- and inter-domain contacts that support structural stability of the outer pore. Glycine residues downstream from the selectivity filter are proposed to participate in knob-into-hole contacts with the P-helices and S6s. These contacts explain the adapted tetrodotoxin resistance of snakes that feed on toxic prey through valine substitution of isoleucine in the P-helix of repeat IV. Polar residues five positions upstream from the selectivity filter residues form H-bonds with the ascending-limb backbones. Exceptionally conserved tryptophans are engaged in inter-repeat H-bonds to form a ring whose π-electrons would facilitate passage of ions from the outer carboxylates to the selectivity filter. The outer-pore model of CaV1.2 derived from the NaV1.4 model is also stabilized by the ring of exceptionally conservative tryptophans and H-bonds between the P-helices and ascending limbs. In this model, the exceptionally conserved aspartate downstream from the selectivity-filter glutamate in repeat II facilitates passage of calcium ions to the selectivity-filter ring through the tryptophan ring. Available experimental data are discussed in view of the models.
Journal of Biological Chemistry 11/2010; 286(4):2998-3006. · 4.77 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Polyamine-containing toxins and synthetic dicationic derivatives of adamantane and phenylcyclohexyl selectively antagonize Ca(2+)-permeable α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionate (AMPA) receptor channels. These compounds demonstrate voltage-dependent open-channel block and are trapped by closed channels. In this study, we describe an alternative mechanism of non-competitive AMPA receptor inhibition caused by 9-aminoacridine and some of its derivatives. These compounds exhibit similar potency against Ca(2+)-permeable and Ca(2+)-impermeable AMPA receptors. The inhibition is largely voltage-independent, binding and unbinding do not require presence of agonist. We conclude that 9-aminoacridine binds to a shallow site in the AMPA receptor, which is located above the activation gate. A comparison of three-dimensional structures of the antagonists suggests that the 'V-like' shape of the hydrophobic headgroup favors voltage-dependent binding to the deep site in the channel pore, whereas the compounds possessing flat aromatic headgroups preferably bind to the shallow site. The characterization of the novel mechanism of AMPA receptor channel antagonism opens a way to develop a new family of pharmacological agents, which can be of scientific and practical importance.
Journal of Neurochemistry 10/2010; 115(6):1621-32. · 4.06 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Calcium channels play crucial physiological roles. In the absence of high-resolution structures of the channels, the mechanism of ion permeation is unknown. Here we used a method proposed in an accompanying paper (Cheng and Zhorov in Eur Biophys J, 2009) to predict possible chelation patterns of calcium ions in a structural model of the L-type calcium channel. We compared three models in which two or three calcium ions interact with the four selectivity filter glutamates and a conserved aspartate adjacent to the glutamate in repeat II. Monte Carlo energy minimizations yielded many complexes with calcium ions bound to at least two selectivity filter carboxylates. In these complexes calcium-carboxylate attractions are counterbalanced by calcium-calcium and carboxylate-carboxylate repulsions. Superposition of the complexes suggests a high degree of mobility of calcium ions and carboxylate groups of the glutamates. We used the predicted complexes to propose a permeation mechanism that involves single-file movement of calcium ions. The key feature of this mechanism is the presence of bridging glutamates that coordinate two calcium ions and enable their transitions between different chelating patterns involving four to six oxygen atoms from the channel protein. The conserved aspartate is proposed to coordinate a calcium ion incoming to the selectivity filter from the extracellular side. Glutamates in repeats III and IV, which are most distant from the repeat II aspartate, are proposed to coordinate the calcium ion that leaves the selectivity filter to the inner pore. Published experimental data and earlier proposed permeation models are discussed in view of our model.
Biophysics of Structure and Mechanism 04/2010; 39(5):839-53. · 2.44 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: It is known than the most potent homologues in various series of O,O-dialkylphosphates are the dibutyl or diamyl derivatives toward mammalian cholinesterases (ChEs) (both Acetyl- and Butyryl-ChEs), and the dimethyl or diethyl ones toward insect AChEs. To investigate the ChE interaction with organophosphorus inhibitors (OPIs) in more detail, we have performed in silico docking of the series of O,O-dialkylfluorophosphates into active center of different ChEs - both from mammals (human and mouse AChEs and horse BChE), and from insects (spring grain aphid AChE belonging to AChE-1 type, and housefly AChE belonging to AChE-2 type). According to the modeling results, one radical is directed to the anionic site W84, another to the acyl pocket. In addition to well-known residues 288 and 290 (Torpedo AChE sequence numbering), we showed an essential influence of residue 400 - a short alkyl residue in mammalian ChEs and phenylalanine in insect ChEs. Phenylalanine in this position creates sterical hindrance for proper orientation of the OPI molecule, which increases the distance between the catalytic serine gamma-oxygen and phosphorus, and decreases the angle of nucleophylic attack. This suggestion was supported by docking of dibutylfluorophosphate into the active center of AChEs with in silico mutations. Thus, we suggest both the angle of nucleophylic attack and the distance between the catalytic serine and phosphorus atom as measures of productivity of OPI binding.
Chemico-biological interactions 03/2010; 187(1-3):153-6. · 2.46 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Phenylalkylamines (PAAs), a major class of L-type calcium channel (LTCC) blockers, have two aromatic rings connected by a flexible chain with a nitrile substituent. Structural aspects of ligand-channel interactions remain unclear. We have built a KvAP-based model of LTCC and used Monte Carlo energy minimizations to dock devapamil, verapamil, gallopamil, and other PAAs. The PAA-LTCC models have the following common features: (i) the meta-methoxy group in ring A, which is proximal to the nitrile group, accepts an H-bond from a PAA-sensing Tyr_IIIS6; (ii) the meta-methoxy group in ring B accepts an H-bond from a PAA-sensing Tyr_IVS6; (iii) the ammonium group is stabilized at the focus of P-helices; and (iv) the nitrile group binds to a Ca(2+) ion coordinated by the selectivity filter glutamates in repeats III and IV. The latter feature can explain Ca(2+) potentiation of PAA action and the presence of an electronegative atom at a similar position of potent PAA analogs. Tyr substitution of a Thr in IIIS5 is known to enhance action of devapamil and verapamil. Our models predict that the para-methoxy group in ring A of devapamil and verapamil accepts an H-bond from this engineered Tyr. The model explains structure-activity relationships of PAAs, effects of LTCC mutations on PAA potency, data on PAA access to LTCC, and Ca(2+) potentiation of PAA action. Common and class-specific aspects of action of PAAs, dihydropyridines, and benzothiazepines are discussed in view of the repeat interface concept.
Journal of Biological Chemistry 09/2009; 284(41):28332-42. · 4.77 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: 1,4-Dihydropyridines (DHPs) constitute a major class of ligands for L-type Ca(2+) channels (LTCC). The DHPs have a boat-like, six-membered ring with an NH group at the stern, an aromatic moiety at the bow, and substituents at the port and starboard sides. Various DHPs exhibit antagonistic or agonistic activities, which were previously explained as stabilization or destabilization, respectively, of the closed activation gate by the portside substituents. Here we report a novel structural model in which agonist and antagonist activities are determined by different parts of the DHP molecule and have different mechanisms. In our model, which is based on Monte Carlo minimizations of DHP-LTCC complexes, the DHP moieties at the stern, bow, and starboard form H-bonds with side chains of the key DHP-sensing residues Tyr_IIIS6, Tyr_IVS6, and Gln_IIIS5, respectively. We propose that these H-bonds, which are common for agonists and antagonists, stabilize the LTCC conformation with the open activation gate. This explains why both agonists and antagonists increase probability of the long lasting channel openings and why even partial disruption of the contacts eliminates the agonistic action. In our model, the portside approaches the selectivity filter. Hydrophobic portside of antagonists may induce long lasting channel closings by destabilizing Ca(2+) binding to the selectivity filter glutamates. Agonists have either hydrophilic substituents or a hydrogen atom at their portside, and thus lack this destabilizing effect. The predicted orientation of the DHP core allows accommodation of long substituents in the domain interface or in the inner pore. Our model may be useful for developing novel clinically relevant LTCC blockers.
Journal of Biological Chemistry 06/2009; 284(28):19006-17. · 4.77 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: 9-Aminoacridine is known as "foot-in-the-door" NMDA receptor channel blocker because its binding prevents channel closure. Structural determinants of this mechanism of block were studied using a series of 9-aminoacridine derivatives. Experiments were performed on native NMDA receptors of hippocampal pyramidal neurons, isolated from rat brain slices. The use-dependence of block and kinetics of recovery from block were used to characterize mechanism of block produced by the compounds. Modifications, which preserve the flat structure of the tricyclic 9-aminoacridine moiety, affect blocking activity and kinetics but not the foot-in-the-door mechanism. On the contrary, disruption of the flat structure changes the mechanism of block to trapping. It is concluded that flat aromatic structure is one of the critical determinants of the action mechanism of 9-aminoacridine.
Neuroscience Letters 01/2009; 451(1):29-33. · 2.11 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Local anesthetics (LAs) are known to bind Na+ channels in the closed, open, and inactivated states and reach their binding sites via extracellular and intracellular access pathways. Despite intensive studies, no atomic-scale theory is available to explain the diverse experimental data on the LA actions. Here we attempt to contribute to this theory by simulating access and binding of LAs in the KcsA-based homology model of the closed Na+ channel. We used Monte Carlo minimizations to model the channel with representative local anesthetics N-(2,6-dimethylphenylcarbamoylmethyl)triethylammonium (QX-314), cocaine, and tetracaine. We found the nucleophilic central cavity to be a common binding region for the ammonium group of LAs, whose aromatic group can extend either along the pore axis (vertical binding mode) or to the III/IV domain interface (horizontal binding mode). The vertical mode was earlier predicted for the open channel, but only the horizontal mode is consistent with mutational data on the closed-channel block. To explore hypothetical access pathways of the permanently charged QX-314, we pulled the ligand via the selectivity filter, the closed activation gate, and the III/IV domain interface. Only the last pathway, which leads to the horizontal binding mode, did not impose steric obstacles. The LA ammonium group mobility within the central cavity was more restricted in the vertical mode than in the horizontal mode. Therefore, occupation of the selectivity-filter DEKA locus by a Na+ ion destabilizes the vertical mode, thus favoring the horizontal mode. LA binding in the closed channel requires the resident Na+ ion to leave the nucleophilic central cavity through the selectivity filter, whereas the LA egress should be coupled with reoccupation of the cavity by Na+. This hypothesis on the coupled movement of Na+ and LA in the closed channel explains seemingly contradictory data on how the outer-pore mutations as well as tetrodotoxin and micro-conotoxin binding affect the ingress and egress of LAs.
Molecular pharmacology 10/2008; 74(4):1033-45. · 4.53 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Benz(othi)azepine (BTZ) derivatives constitute one of three major classes of L-type Ca(2+) channel ligands. Despite intensive experimental studies, no three-dimensional model of BTZ binding is available. Here we have built KvAP- and KcsA-based models of the Ca(v)1.2 pore domain in the open and closed states and used multiple Monte Carlo minimizations to dock representative ligands. In our open channel model, key functional groups of BTZs interact with BTZ-sensing residues, which were identified in previous mutational experiments. The bulky tricyclic moiety occupies interface between domains III and IV, while the ammonium group protrudes into the inner pore, where it is stabilized by nucleophilic C-ends of the pore helices. In the closed channel model, contacts with several ligand-sensing residues in the inner helices are lost, which weakens ligand-channel interactions. An important feature of the ligand-binding mode in both open and closed channels is an interaction between the BTZ carbonyl group and a Ca(2+) ion chelated by the selectivity filter glutamates in domains III and IV. In the absence of Ca(2+), the tricyclic BTZ moiety remains in the domain interface, while the ammonium group directly interacts with a glutamate residue in the selectivity filter. Our model suggests that the Ca(2+) potentiation involves a direct electrostatic interaction between aCa(2+) ion and the ligand rather than an allosteric mechanism. Energy profiles indicate that BTZs can reach the binding site from the domain interface, whereas access through the open activation gate is unlikely, because reorientation of the bulky molecule in the pore is hindered.
Journal of Biological Chemistry 07/2008; 283(25):17594-604. · 4.77 Impact Factor
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Journal of Biological Chemistry. 04/2008;
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ABSTRACT: Inactivation is a fundamental property of voltage-gated ion channels. Fast inactivation of Na(+) channels involves channel block by the III-IV cytoplasmic interdomain linker. The mechanisms of nonfast types of inactivation (intermediate, slow, and ultraslow) are unclear, although the ionic environment and P-loops rearrangement appear to be involved. In this study, we employed a TTX-based P-loop domain model of a sodium channel and the MCM method to investigate a possible role of P-loop rearrangement in the nonfast inactivation. Our modeling predicts that Na(+) ions can bind between neighboring domains in the outer-carboxylates ring EEDD, forming an ordered structure with interdomain contacts that stabilize the conducting conformation of the outer pore. In this model, the permeant ions can transit between the EEDD ring and the selectivity filter ring DEKA, retaining contacts with at least two carboxylates. In the absence of Na(+), the electrostatic repulsion between the EEDD carboxylates disrupts the permeable configuration. In this Na(+)-deficient model, the region between the EEDD and DEKA rings is inaccessible for Na(+) but is accessible for TMA. Taken together, these results suggest that Na(+)-saturated models are consistent with experimental characteristics of the open channels, whereas Na(+)-deficient models are consistent with experimentally defined properties of the slow-inactivated channels. Our calculations further predict that binding of LAs to the inner pore would depend on whether Na(+) occupies the DEKA ring. In the absence of Na(+) in the DEKA ring, the cationic group of lidocaine occurs in the focus of the pore helices' macrodipoles and would prevent occupation of the ring by Na(+). Loading the DEKA ring with Na(+) results in the electrostatic repulsion with lidocaine. Thus, there are antagonistic relations between a cationic ligand bound in the inner pore and Na(+) in the DEKA ring.
Biophysical Journal 10/2007; 93(5):1557-70. · 3.65 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Sequence alignment of four S6 segments in the human cardiac Na+ channel suggests that serine-401 (hNav1.5-S401) at D1S6 along with asparagine-927 (N927) at D2S6, serine-1458 (S1458) at D3S6, and phenylalanine-1760 (F1760) at D4S6 may jointly form a pore-facing S(401)N(927)S(1458)F(1760) ring. Importantly, this pore-facing structure is adjacent to the putative gating-hinge (G(400)G(926)G(1457)S(1759)) and close to the selectivity filter. Within this SNSF ring, only S401 has not yet been identified as a batrachotoxin (BTX) sensing residue. We therefore created S401 mutants with 12 substitutions (S401C,W,P,A,K,F,R,E,L,N,D,G) and assayed their BTX sensitivity. All S401 mutants expressed Na+ currents but often with altered gating characteristics. Ten mutants were found sensitive to 5 muM BTX, which eliminated Na+ channel fast inactivation after repetitive pulses. However, S401K and S401R became BTX resistant. In addition, the block of open and inactivated hNav1.5-S401K Na+ channels by local anesthetic bupivacaine was reduced by approximately 8-10-fold, but not the block of resting Na+ channels. Qualitatively, these ligand-sensing phenotypes of hNav1.5-S401K channels resemble those of S1458K and F1760K channels reported earlier. Together, our results support that residue hNav1.5-S401 at D1S6 is facing the inner cavity and is in close proximity to the receptor sites for BTX and for local anesthetics.
Pflügers Archiv - European Journal of Physiology 06/2007; 454(2):277-87. · 4.46 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Molecular modeling predicts that a local anesthetic (LA) lidocaine binds to the resting and open Na(v)1.5 in different modes, interacting with LA-sensing residues known from experiments. Besides the major pathway via the open activation gate, LAs can reach the inner pore via a "sidewalk" between D3S6, D4S6, and D3P. The ammonium group of a cationic LA binds in the focus of the pore-helices macrodipoles, which also stabilize a Na(+) ion chelated by two benzocaine molecules. The LA's cationic group and a Na(+) ion in the selectivity filter repel each other suggesting that the Na(+) depletion upon slow inactivation would stabilize a LA, while a LA would stabilize slow-inactivated states.
FEBS Letters 12/2006; 580(26):6027-32. · 3.54 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Philanthotoxins are uncompetitive antagonists of Ca2+-permeable AMPA receptors presumed to bind to the pore-forming region, but a detailed molecular mechanism for this interaction is missing. Here a small library of novel philanthotoxins was designed and synthesized using a solid-phase strategy. The biological activities were investigated at cloned and "native" AMPA receptors using electrophysiological techniques. A distinct relationship between length of the polyamine moiety and the location of a secondary amino group was observed. Fitting the data to the Woodhull equation allowed the first experimental demonstration of the relative location and orientation of the philanthotoxin molecule in the receptor. These results were corroborated by in silico studies using a homology model of the AMPA receptor ion channel. Together these studies provide strong evidence for a molecular mechanism by which polyamine toxins antagonize the AMPA receptor ion channel and provide the basis for rational development of uncompetitive antagonists of AMPA receptors.
Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 10/2006; 49(18):5414-23. · 5.25 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: A structural model of the rNav1.4 Na+ channel with batrachotoxin (BTX) bound within the inner cavity suggested that the BTX pyrrole moiety is located between a lysine residue at the DEKA selectivity filter (Lys1237) and an adjacent phenylalanine residue (Phe1236). We tested this pyrrole-binding model by site-directed mutagenesis of Phe1236 at D3/P-loop with 11 amino acids. Mutants F1236D and F1236E expressed poorly, whereas nine other mutants either expressed robust Na+ currents, like the wild-type (F1236Y/Q/K), or somewhat reduced current (F1236G/A/C/N/W/R). Gating properties were altered modestly in most mutant channels, with F1236G displaying the greatest shift in activation and steady-state fast inactivation (-10.1 and -7.5 mV, respectively). Mutants F1236K and F1236R were severely resistant to BTX after 1000 repetitive pulses (+50 mV/20 ms at 2 Hz), whereas seven other mutants were sensitive but with reduced magnitudes compared with the wild type. It is noteworthy that rNav1.4-F1236K mutant Na+ channels remained highly sensitive to block by the local anesthetic bupivacaine, unlike several other BTX-resistant mutant channels. Our data thus support a model in which BTX, when bound within the inner cavity, interacts with the D3/P-loop directly. Such a direct interaction provides clues on how BTX alters the Na+ channel selectivity and conductance.
Molecular Pharmacology 04/2006; 69(3):788-95. · 4.88 Impact Factor
