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ABSTRACT: The object recognition task (ORT) is a popular one-trial learning test for animals. In the current study, we investigated several methodological issues concerning the task. Data was pooled from 28 ORT studies, containing 731 male Wistar rats. We investigated the relationship between 3 common absolute- and relative discrimination measures, as well as their relation to exploratory activity. In this context, the effects of pre-experimental habituation, object familiarity, trial duration, retention interval and the amnesic drugs MK-801 and scopolamine were investigated. Our analyses showed that the ORT is very sensitive, capable of detecting subtle differences in memory (discrimination) and exploratory performance. As a consequence, it is susceptible to potential biases due to (injection) stress and side effects of drugs. Our data indicated that a minimum amount of exploration is required in the sample and test trial for stable significant discrimination performance. However, there was no relationship between the level of exploration in the sample trial and discrimination performance. In addition, the level of exploration in the test trial was positively related to the absolute discrimination measure, whereas this was not the case for relative discrimination measures, which correct for exploratory differences, making them more resistant to exploration biases. Animals appeared to remember object information over multiple test sessions. Therefore, when animals have encountered both objects in prior test sessions, the object preference observed in the test trial of 1h retention intervals is probably due to a relative difference in familiarity between the objects in the test trial, rather than true novelty per se. Taken together, our findings suggest to take into consideration pre-experimental exposure (familiarization) to objects, habituation to treatment procedures, and the use of relative discrimination measures when using the ORT.
Behavioural brain research 04/2012; 232(2):335-47. · 3.22 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Acute tryptophan depletion is extensively used to investigate the implication of serotonin in the onset of depressive disorders. In rats, it lowers peripheral tryptophan and decreases central serotonin concentrations. We aimed to establish the rat model of acute tryptophan depletion in the mouse for potential application as serotonin challenge tool in genetic mouse models of depression. Pharmacokinetic and behavioural effects of a tryptophan-free diet were examined in Swiss and C57BL/6 mice. Peripheral amino acids were measured and central tryptophan and serotonin concentrations were compared with anxiety and depression-like behaviour in the elevated zero-maze, forced swimming test or tail suspension test. While acute tryptophan depletion resulted in a 74% reduction of the plasma ratio tryptophan to the sum of other large neutral amino acids in Swiss mice 1h after administration (2x10 ml/kg, 30 min interval), there was only a 40% reduction in C57BL/6 mice. The latter did not show anxiety in the elevated zero-maze or increased immobility in the forced swimming test or tail suspension test. A higher dose (2x20 ml/kg) with a longer interval (60 min) reduced the ratio with 68% in C57BL/6 mice, lowered hippocampal serotonin turnover and had no functional effect when tested in the elevated zero-maze and forced swimming test. These findings have important implications for the use of acute tryptophan depletion in general and in particular for its application in mice. Although in healthy mice no clear central serotonin or functional effects were observed, further research is indicated using mice with pre-existing serotonin dysfunction, as they might be more vulnerable to acute tryptophan depletion.
Neurochemistry International 09/2009; 56(1):21-34. · 2.86 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Acute tryptophan depletion (ATD) is a widely used method to study the role of serotonin (5-HT) in affect and cognition. ATD results in a strong but transient decrease in plasma tryptophan and central 5-HT synthesis and availability. Although its use is widespread, the evidence that the numerous functional effects of ATD are caused by actual changes in 5-HT neuronal release is not very strong. Thus far, decreases in 5-HT efflux (thought to reflect synaptic release) were only reported after chronic tryptophan depletion or when ATD was combined with blockade of 5-HT reuptake.
With the current experiment, we aimed to study the validity of the method of ATD by measuring the extent to which it reduces the efflux of 5-HT (and dopamine) in the prefrontal cortex in the absence of reuptake blockage.
We simultaneously measured in freely moving animals plasma tryptophan via a catheter in the jugular vein and 5-HT and DA efflux in the medial prefrontal cortex through microdialysis after ATD treatment.
ATD reduced plasma tryptophan to less than 30% of control, without affecting 5-HT or DA efflux in the prefrontal cortex, indicating that even strong reductions of plasma tryptophan do not necessarily result in decreases in central 5-HT efflux.
The present experiment showed that reductions in plasma tryptophan, similar to values associated with behavioural effects, do not necessarily reduce 5-HT efflux and suggest that the cognitive and behavioural effects of ATD may not be (exclusively) due to alterations in 5-HT release.
Psychopharmacologia 01/2008; 195(3):377-85. · 4.08 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Previous studies with acute tryptophan depletion, leading to transient central 5-HT reductions, showed no effects on affective behavior but impaired object memory. In the present study, the behavioral effects of a 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine (5,7-DHT) lesion in the dorsal raphe were evaluated in animal models of anxiety (open field test), depression (forced swimming test), behavioral inhibition (discrete fixed interval test) and cognition (object recognition task). The corticosterone response to a stress condition was examined at several intervals after 5,7-DHT treatment. The substantial reduction in neuronal 5-HT markers in the dorsal raphe did not affect anxiety-related, depressive-like or impulsive behavior. Compared to the SHAM group, the lesioned rats showed a lower response latency to obtain a reward, indicating a quick and accurate reaction to a stimulus. No differences were found in the progressive ratio test for food motivation. A marked impairment in object recognition was found. The 5,7-DHT treatment did not affect the corticosterone response to a stressful situation. Overall, these results corroborate studies with acute tryptophan depletion suggesting a role of 5-HT in object memory, but not affective behavior.
Behavioural Brain Research 05/2006; 168(2):197-207. · 3.42 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Antagonists at serotonin type 6 (5-HT(6)) receptors show activity in models of learning and memory. Although the underlying mechanism(s) are not well understood, these effects may involve an increase in acetylcholine (ACh) levels. The present study sought to characterize the cognitive-enhancing effects of the 5-HT(6) antagonist Ro4368554 (3-benzenesulfonyl-7-(4-methyl-piperazin-1-yl)1H-indole) in a rat object recognition task employing a cholinergic (scopolamine pretreatment) and a serotonergic- (tryptophan (TRP) depletion) deficient model, and compared its pattern of action with that of the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor metrifonate. Initial testing in a time-dependent forgetting task employing a 24-h delay between training and testing showed that metrifonate improved object recognition (at 10 and 30 mg/kg, p.o.), whereas Ro4368554 was inactive. Both, Ro4368554 (3 and 10 mg/kg, intraperitoneally (i.p.)) and metrifonate (10 mg/kg, p.o., respectively) reversed memory deficits induced by scopolamine and TRP depletion (10 mg/kg, i.p., and 3 mg/kg, p.o., respectively). In conclusion, although Ro4368554 did not improve a time-related retention deficit, it reversed a cholinergic and a serotonergic memory deficit, suggesting that both mechanisms may be involved in the facilitation of object memory by Ro4368554 and, possibly, other 5-HT(6) receptor antagonists.
Neuropsychopharmacology 01/2006; 30(12):2169-79. · 7.99 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: One manner to study the role of serotonin (5-HT) in behavioral functions is through nutritional manipulation of its precursor tryptophan (TRP). By means of the method of acute TRP depletion, plasma TRP levels can be reduced in a reversible way in both humans and rats. In the present study a TRP-free protein-carbohydrate mixture was used to investigate the behavioral effects of lowering TRP and 5-HT concentrations in adult male rats. These animals were tested in models of anxiety (open field, home cage emergence test), depression (forced swimming test) and cognition (object recognition test and Morris water escape test). The TRP-free protein-carbohydrate mixture substantially reduced the ratio TRP/SigmaLNAA within 2 and 4 h by 75 and 60%, respectively. It was found that 4 h after administration, the treatment did not affect anxiety-related behavior nor did it cause depressive-like behavior. Also, no treatment effect was found on spatial learning performance in a Morris water escape test. On the other hand, performance in an object recognition test was clearly impaired after TRP depletion. Taken together, these data suggest that acute lowered central 5-HT levels are not associated with changes in affective behavior (i.e. anxiety and depression), but do impair object memory in adult rats.
Behavioural Brain Research 06/2004; 151(1-2):53-64. · 3.42 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The object recognition task (ORT) is a popular one-trial learning test for animals. In the current study, we investigated several methodological issues concerning the task. Data was pooled from 28 ORT studies, containing 731 male Wistar rats. We investigated the relationship between 3 common absolute- and relative discrimination measures, as well as their relation to exploratory activity. In this context, the effects of pre-experimental habituation, object familiarity, trial duration, retention interval and the amnesic drugs MK-801 and scopolamine were investigated. Our analyses showed that the ORT is very sensitive, capable of detecting subtle differences in memory (discrimination) and exploratory performance. As a consequence, it is susceptible to potential biases due to (injection) stress and side effects of drugs. Our data indicated that a minimum amount of exploration is required in the sample and test trial for stable significant discrimination performance. However, there was no relationship between the level of exploration in the sample trial and discrimination performance. In addition, the level of exploration in the test trial was positively related to the absolute discrimination measure, whereas this was not the case for relative discrimination measures, which correct for exploratory differences, making them more resistant to exploration biases. Animals appeared to remember object information over multiple test sessions. Therefore, when animals have encountered both objects in prior test sessions, the object preference observed in the test trial of 1 h retention intervals is probably due to a relative difference in familiarity between the objects in the test trial, rather than true novelty per se. Taken together, our findings suggest to take into consideration pre-experimental exposure (familiarization) to objects, habituation to treatment procedures, and the use of relative discrimination measures when using the ORT.Highlights► Pre-experimental training prevents stress and habituation biases. ► No relation was found between sample trial exploration and memory performance. ► Test trail exploration was positively correlated to absolute discrimination measures. ► Relative discrimination measures were unaffected by test trial exploration levels. ► Wistar rats remembered object information for 9 days after a single 3 min exposure.
Behavioural Brain Research. 232(2):335-347.
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[show abstract]
[hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: Previous studies with acute tryptophan depletion, leading to transient central 5-HT reductions, showed no effects on affective behavior but impaired object memory. In the present study, the behavioral effects of a 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine (5,7-DHT) lesion in the dorsal raphe were evaluated in animal models of anxiety (open field test), depression (forced swimming test), behavioral inhibition (discrete fixed interval test) and cognition (object recognition task). The corticosterone response to a stress condition was examined at several intervals after 5,7-DHT treatment.The substantial reduction in neuronal 5-HT markers in the dorsal raphe did not affect anxiety-related, depressive-like or impulsive behavior. Compared to the SHAM group, the lesioned rats showed a lower response latency to obtain a reward, indicating a quick and accurate reaction to a stimulus. No differences were found in the progressive ratio test for food motivation. A marked impairment in object recognition was found. The 5,7-DHT treatment did not affect the corticosterone response to a stressful situation. Overall, these results corroborate studies with acute tryptophan depletion suggesting a role of 5-HT in object memory, but not affective behavior.
Behavioural Brain Research.
