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ABSTRACT: The disruption of circadian rhythms following time‐zone transitions gives rise to the syndrome of jet lag. The power of some of the symptoms of jet lag to predict the amount of jet lag measured at the same and at different times of the day has been investigated. Eleven healthy subjects were studied in an Isolation Unit for two days after a simulated flight from the UK to Beijing (8 time zones to the east). At six time‐points (08:30, 11:00, 14:00, 17:00, 20:00, and 23:00 h), the subjects recorded their jet lag, and the differences from “normal” (that is, from days in which there is no jet lag) of alertness, hunger, indigestion, concentration, motivation, and irritability. They recorded at 08:30 h the type of food they had eaten since rising at 08:00 h and, at the other times, the type of food eaten in the last three hours. Assessments were made by visual analogue scales or, in the case of type of food, by a nominal scale. Following the time‐zone transition, the adjustment of meals appeared to be complete almost immediately. Jet lag and its symptoms were present during both experimental days. Jet lag tended to rise during the course of the daytime, accompanied by falls in alertness, motivation, and concentration. Correlation matrices between jet lag and each of the other variables were produced, using lags between the variable (from up to 5 time‐points before the assessment of jet lag to 5 time‐points afterwards) and pooling the results from both days. These matrices indicated that significant correlations existed only between jet lag and alertness, concentration, and motivation, and then only when these other variables were assessed at the same time as jet lag or 1 or 2 time‐points earlier. Jet lag was then treated as the dependent variable and the symptoms as covariates in analysis of covariances (ANCOVAs), with the days treated as a random effect. This analysis enabled the significance of potential predictors of jet lag, together with their β‐coefficients (the relationship between a unit change of each significant predictor and the change in jet lag), to be calculated. Falls in alertness and motivation were significant predictors of increased jet lag, provided that they were measured at the same time, when they accounted for about 50% of the jet lag; when measured at other time‐points, they did not act as significant predictors. It is concluded that the amount of jet lag varies during the course of the day and that it can be predicted from contemporaneous assessments of alertness and motivation—but not from assessments made at other times of the day, nor from other variables that are symptoms of jet lag, even though these other variables are significantly increased. In considering the results of this and our previous study, we reiterate the view that the exact meaning of “jet lag” is complex and that the particular combination of factors that contribute to it might vary with the time of day that the assessment is made. Inferences about any decrements due to time‐zone transitions cannot be made reliably at times of the day that differ from the time when jet lag is assessed.
07/2009; 22(1):121-136.
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ABSTRACT: The power of the symptoms of jet lag in predicting the amount of jet lag measured at the same and different times of the day has been investigated. A total of 85 subjects was studied for 6 days after a flight from the UK to Australia (10 time zones to the east). At 08:00, 12:00, 16:00, 20:00, and 24:00h, the subjects recorded their jet lag and fatigue. At 08:00h, they also assessed their sleep. At 12:00 and 16:00h, they assessed their attitude to a meal, as well as their motivation, commitment, and irritability. On retiring, they recorded bowel activity. Assessments were by visual analog scales. Jet lag was treated as the dependent variable and the symptoms as covariates in ANCOVAs. Fatigue was a powerful predictor of jet lag, provided it was measured at the same time, and some aspects of sleep predicted jet lag measured on retiring or rising. The other symptoms predicted jet lag less powerfully and/or at a wider range of times. It is concluded that, even though jet lag at any time of the day can be predicted from contemporaneous assessments of fatigue and that it can be predicted on retiring or rising from some aspects of changed sleep, jet lag is predicted less reliably from other symptoms, including aspects of mental performance. These findings question exactly what causes jet lag at a particular time of day, and so are relevant to studies which use this measurement to investigate the problems associated with time‐zone transitions, and ways to ameliorate them.
07/2009; 20(6):1061-1073.
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ABSTRACT: Long-distance travel is becoming increasingly common. Whatever the means of transport, any long journey will be associated with "travel fatigue". The symptoms associated with this phenomenon result from a changed routine (particularly sleep lost and meals) and the general disruption caused by travel. Planning any trip well in advance will minimise many of these problems, but some factors are less easy to guard against. These problems include sitting in cramped and uncomfortable conditions and, with flights, the hypoxic environment in the cabin. After arrival at the destination in another country, there can be problems coping with the local language, alterations in food and different customs. If the flight has crossed the equator, then there is likely to be a change in season and natural lighting and, if it has crossed several time zones, there will also be the problem of "jet lag", caused by a transient desynchrony between the "body clock" and the new local time. Moreover, the new environment might differ from the place of departure with regard to ambient temperature and humidity, altitude, natural lighting (including ultraviolet radiation) and pollution. The traveller needs to be aware of these changes before setting off, so that appropriate preparations (clothing, for example) can be made.
Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease 04/2009; 7(2):88-101. · 1.50 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: We examined variations in dart-throwing performance during the daytime in 12 participants. Two distances from the dartboard were investigated - the normal distance (short throws) and another 50% further away than this (long throws). Intra-aural temperature and subjective fatigue were measured, and errors in performance were assessed as the radial distances of throws from the bulls-eye and the standard deviation of these distances. Long-distance throws improved significantly throughout the daytime and correlated positively with intra-aural temperature (r= -0.49, P=0.002 and r= -0.49, P=0.002 for errors and standard deviation of errors, respectively), but not with subjective fatigue (r= -0.10, P=0.56 and r= -0.05, P=0.74 for errors and standard deviation of errors, respectively). Short-distance throws were associated less with intra-aural temperature (r= -0.46, P= 0.005 and r= -0.17, P=0.31 for errors and standard deviation of errors, respectively), and worsened with fatigue (r=+0.34, P= 0.040 for errors). Compared with the short-distance throws, the long-distance throws were performed significantly less well than could be accounted for by the increased distance (mean errors were increased 1.67-2.78 times and standard deviation of errors of errors 1.58-3.68 times), supporting the concept of a trade-off between force of contraction and accuracy of performance. Throwing darts can be used as a model for investigating factors that influence motor performance, and our results indicate that the effects of time of day upon performance depend upon the relative importance of force and accuracy.
Journal of Sports Sciences 12/2007; 25(13):1531-8. · 1.93 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Changes in rectal temperature during mild exercise in the middle of the rising (11:00 h) and falling (23:00 h) phases of the circadian rhythm of resting core temperature have been compared. Seven healthy males were studied at rest, while exercising on a cycle ergometer (60 min at 80 W), and during the first 30 min of recovery. Rectal temperature, forearm blood flow, and forearm sweat rate were measured at 1 min intervals throughout. During exercise, there were significant time-of-day differences in the profiles of all three variables, and in the thresholds for increases in forearm blood flow and sweating. Forearm blood flow and sweat rate were recruited more rapidly and to a greater extent with evening exercise, and rectal temperature rose less. Analysis of covariance, with rectal temperature as the covariate, indicated the associations between it and forearm blood flow or sweating were significantly different (p<0.05) between the two times of day. There were also significant (p<0.05) time-of-day effects for forearm blood flow and sweating that were independent of rectal temperature. During recovery, rectal temperature fell more quickly in the late evening than late morning. Forearm blood flow and sweating also showed time-of-day differences, but these did not co-vary with rectal temperature. Control of rectal temperature during exercise and recovery appears to be more effective in the late evening than late morning, and differences in forearm blood flow and sweating, as well as factors independent of these two variables, contribute to this difference. The results support our "heat-gain/heat-loss modes" hypothesis.
Chronobiology International 01/2007; 24(1):63-85. · 4.03 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: To understand better how disruption to daily routines and circadian factors affect food intake, some aspects of 361 passengers' eating habits during long-haul flights across eight time zones were investigated. Two meals were provided during each flight. Passengers stated whether or not they had eaten part or all of each meal and the reasons for this decision. They were also asked to give their responses to it (appetite beforehand, enjoyment during the meal, and satiety afterwards), and the type of meal they would prefer to have eaten, given an unrestricted choice. There were few occasions (<6%) when a meal was refused altogether, and no single reason was dominant. Subjective responses to food intake were more positive when larger meals were eaten and "appetite" rather than "no choice" was given as the reason for eating. Subjective responses were also more positive in those who thought the size of the meal offered was neither too small nor too large. When the two meals were considered separately, the first meal was well received by the passengers, and their enjoyment of it was not significantly different from "normal." The second meal (offered soon before landing in the new time zone) was less well received, and many passengers would have preferred a smaller meal. The findings contribute to an understanding of the factors determining the decision to eat a meal and the subjective responses to the food that is eaten. They also have implications for airlines wishing to provide food that is acceptable to passengers and for those providing meals for night workers.
Chronobiology International 02/2006; 23(5):985-1007. · 4.03 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Some factors influencing food intake and subjective responses to meals were assessed in 2 groups (n=40 and n=36) of healthy university students. Both groups were studied for 6 days and included both "structured" and "unstructured" times. A questionnaire was completed by all subjects at 3 h intervals while awake. The questionnaires asked the subjects to state the factors that led them to choose to eat or not to eat a meal in the previous 3 h. If they ate a meal, they were required to describe the type of meal eaten and their responses to it-their hunger before it, their enjoyment of the meal itself, and their degree of satisfaction afterwards. Subjects were also asked to describe the type of meal that they would like to have eaten (the desired meal) in the absence of any restraints due to time pressure, cost, and so on. In the first group, 3 "structured" (working) and 3 "unstructured" (rest) days were chosen. Consistant with our previous studies, structured days, as compared to unstructured days, were associated with smaller meals and less positive subjective responses to them. Also, the meals that were eaten were often smaller than those that were desired, or were even missed altogether, due to time pressure. Not only were the meals eaten on unstructured days larger and rated, to by the subjects more positively, but also there was an additional positive effect if the meal played a social role. In the second group, 6 days were chosen, during which there were structured and unstructured 3 h periods. Many of the findings (with regard to reasons for eating or not eating a meal, and the effect of meal size upon subjective responses to it, for example) were the same as in the first group. However, the effect of structured vs. unstructured 3 h periods was significantly less marked than the effect of structured vs. unstructured days that had been found in the first group, and effects due to social factors and time pressure were less reliably present. The results indicate that food intake is affected by whether the whole or only part of the day is "structured" or "unstructured." These findings might be relevant to some problems faced by the workforce, in general, and by night workers, in particular.
Chronobiology International 02/2005; 22(6):1069-92. · 4.03 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Twelve healthy adults were studied, singly or in groups of up to four, in an Isolation Unit before (control days) and for 3 days after a simulated time-zone transition to the east across 8 time zones (the clock being changed from 15:00 to 23:00h). Subjects were free to choose how to pass their waking hours (though naps were forbidden), and to eat what and when they wanted. A wide selection of food was provided, though the subjects had to prepare it. Subjects completed food intake questionnaire on waking and at 3h intervals during the waking day. This questionnaire assessed the reasons for choosing not to eat a meal or, if a meal was eaten, the reasons for doing so, the type of meal chosen and the reasons for this choice, and subjective responses to the meal (hunger before, enjoyment during, and satiety afterwards). Subjects also recorded the incidence and degree of indigestion and jet lag at 3 h intervals after the time-zone transition. Following the time-zone transition, the subjects experienced significant amounts of jet lag and recorded a significant increase in the incidence of indigestion. They also showed significant changes in their pattern of food intake, but, whereas the patterns of food intake were no longer significantly different from control days by the third post-shift day, the symptoms of jet lag and indigestion were still present then. The distribution of daytime meals was significantly affected on the first post-shift day, with a redistribution of the times that the main, hot meals were eaten; these times indicated some influence of an unadjusted body clock. On this day also, the reasons for determining food intake continued to be dominated by hunger and appetite (hunger even increasing in the frequency with which it was cited), and the reason for not eating a meal, by a lack of hunger. On both control and post-shift days, there was a marked effect of meal type upon the responses to food intake, with cold food being rated least and large hot meals most when appetite before the meal, enjoyment during it, and satiety afterward were considered. However, evidence suggested that the degree to which larger hot meals were preferred to cold meals was significantly less marked after the time-zone transition. On control days, sleep was unbroken; whereas, after the time-zone transition, all subjects woke on at least one of the 3 nights studied. During the first post-shift night, about half of the subjects ate a meal, the reason given being that they were "hungry." On those occasions when subjects woke but did not eat a meal, the reason cited was because they "could not be bothered" as frequently as because they were "not hungry.". A simulated time-zone transition is associated with significant changes to the incidence of indigestion, pattern of food intake, and subjective responses to food. However, these changes are generally transient and are only weakly linked to the sensation of jet lag.
Chronobiology International 02/2005; 22(2):299-319. · 4.03 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The disruption of circadian rhythms following time-zone transitions gives rise to the syndrome of jet lag. The power of some of the symptoms of jet lag to predict the amount of jet lag measured at the same and at different times of the day has been investigated. Eleven healthy subjects were studied in an Isolation Unit for two days after a simulated flight from the UK to Beijing (8 time zones to the east). At six time-points (08:30, 11:00, 14:00, 17:00, 20:00, and 23:00 h), the subjects recorded their jet lag, and the differences from "normal" (that is, from days in which there is no jet lag) of alertness, hunger, indigestion, concentration, motivation, and irritability. They recorded at 08:30 h the type of food they had eaten since rising at 08:00h and, at the other times, the type of food eaten in the last three hours. Assessments were made by visual analogue scales or, in the case of type of food, by a nominal scale. Following the time-zone transition, the adjustment of meals appeared to be complete almost immediately. Jet lag and its symptoms were present during both experimental days. Jet lag tended to rise during the course of the daytime, accompanied by falls in alertness, motivation, and concentration. Correlation matrices between jet lag and each of the other variables were produced, using lags between the variable (from up to 5 time-points before the assessment of jet lag to 5 time-points afterwards) and pooling the results from both days. These matrices indicated that significant correlations existed only between jet lag and alertness, concentration, and motivation, and then only when these other variables were assessed at the same time as jet lag or 1 or 2 time-points earlier. Jet lag was then treated as the dependent variable and the symptoms as covariates in analysis of covariances (ANCOVAs), with the days treated as a random effect. This analysis enabled the significance of potential predictors of jet lag, together with their beta-coefficients (the relationship between a unit change of each significant predictor and the change in jet lag), to be calculated. Falls in alertness and motivation were significant predictors of increased jet lag, provided that they were measured at the same time, when they accounted for about 50% of the jet lag; when measured at other time-points, they did not act as significant predictors. It is concluded that the amount of jet lag varies during the course of the day and that it can be predicted from contemporaneous assessments of alertness and motivation-but not from assessments made at other times of the day, nor from other variables that are symptoms of jet lag, even though these other variables are significantly increased. In considering the results of this and our previous study, we reiterate the view that the exact meaning of "jet lag" is complex and that the particular combination of factors that contribute to it might vary with the time of day that the assessment is made. Inferences about any decrements due to time-zone transitions cannot be made reliably at times of the day that differ from the time when jet lag is assessed.
Chronobiology International 02/2005; 22(1):121-36. · 4.03 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: This review first examines reliable and convenient ways of measuring core temperature for studying the circadian rhythm, concluding that measurements of rectal and gut temperature fulfil these requirements, but that insulated axilla temperature does not. The origin of the circadian rhythm of core temperature is mainly due to circadian changes in the rate of loss of heat through the extremities, mediated by vasodilatation of the cutaneous vasculature. Difficulties arise when the rhythm of core temperature is used as a marker of the body clock, since it is also affected by the sleep-wake cycle. This masking effect can be overcome directly by constant routines and indirectly by "purification" methods, several of which are described. Evidence supports the value of purification methods to act as a substitute when constant routines cannot be performed. Since many of the mechanisms that rise to the circadian rhythm of core temperature are the same as those that occur during thermoregulation in exercise, there is an interaction between the two. This interaction is manifest in the initial response to spontaneous activity and to mild exercise, body temperature rising more quickly and thermoregulatory reflexes being recruited less quickly around the trough and rising phase of the resting temperature rhythm, in comparison with the peak and falling phase. There are also implications for athletes, who need to exercise maximally and with minimal risk of muscle injury or heat exhaustion in a variety of ambient temperatures and at different times of the day. Understanding the circadian rhythm of core temperature may reduce potential hazards due to the time of day when exercise is performed.
Chronobiology International 02/2005; 22(2):207-25. · 4.03 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Twelve healthy participants were studied in an Isolation Unit. For the first 7 (control) days, subjects lived on UK time. Then the clock was advanced by 8 h, mimicking an eastward time-zone transition, and for days 8 to 12, participants lived on this new local time. Two constant routines (participants were not allowed to sleep, were restricted in movement, and ate regular, identical snacks) were undertaken, during the control days (days 3 to 4) and at the end of the experiment (days 11 to 12). Rectal temperature and activity were measured throughout, with activity used to correct the measured temperatures for the direct (masking) effects of the sleep-wake cycle. Phase changes of the temperature rhythm between the constant routines were assessed by cross-correlation and cosinor analysis. During days 8 to 10, the measured temperatures and those that had been corrected (purified) for masking were assessed by the same two methods, and the shifts were extrapolated to predict the values expected during the second constant routine. Individuals differed widely in the phase shifts of the temperature rhythm, but the correlations between the changes measured by constant routines and those estimated by the purification methods were high (r=0.771 to 0.903), and the differences between them were not significantly different from zero (p>0.24). Phase shifts of the measured (masked) temperature rhythm were poorer predictors of the shift obtained from the constant routines (r<or=0.605; mean+/-SD of differences>3+/-4.5 h). Limitations of the methods due to the variability of results are discussed, but we conclude that the mean phase shifts obtained from purified, but not raw, temperature data show acceptable agreement with those found using our version of the constant routine.
Chronobiology International 01/2005; 22(5):829-58. · 4.03 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Eight healthy subjects exercised at 90watts on a cycle ergometer on four occasions, at times close to the minimum, maximum rate of rise, maximum, and maximum rate of fall of their resting core temperature. The duration of exercise was determined by the time taken for the core (rectal) temperature to reach an equilibrium value. Forearm skin blood flow and temperature were measured regularly during the exercise, as were heart rate and ratings of perceived exertion. Sweat loss was calculated by weighing the subjects nude before and after the exercise. The rise of heart rate was not significantly different at the four times of exercise, though the rating of perceived exertion was greatest at 05:00 h. Resting core temperatures showed a significant circadian rhythm at rest (the timing of which confirmed that exercise was being performed at the required times), but the amplitude of this rhythm was decreased significantly by the exercise. The initial rate of rise of core temperature, and the total rise from the resting to the equilibrium value, were both inversely proportional to resting temperature. The time-course of the rise was accurately described by a negative-exponential model, but this model gave no evidence that the kinetics of the equilibration process depended upon the time of day. The thermoregulatory responses to the rise in core temperature--the amount of total sweat loss and rises in forearm skin blood flow and temperature--differed according to the time of exercise. In general, the responses were significantly greater at 17:00h compared with 05:00h, and at 23:00 h compared with 11:00 h. The results accord with predictions made on the basis of previous work by us in which core temperature rhythms have been separated into components due to the endogenous body clock and due to the direct effects of spontaneous activity. The results are discussed in terms of the ecological implications of the differing capabilities of humans to deal with heat loads produced by spontaneous activity or mild exercise at different phases of the circadian rhythm of resting core temperature.
Chronobiology International 04/2004; 21(2):253-75. · 4.03 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The power of the symptoms of jet lag in predicting the amount of jet lag measured at the same and different times of the day has been investigated. A total of 85 subjects was studied for 6 days after a flight from the UK to Australia (10 time zones to the east). At 08:00, 12:00, 16:00, 20:00, and 24:00 h, the subjects recorded their jet lag and fatigue. At 08:00 h, they also assessed their sleep. At 12:00 and 16:00 h, they assessed their attitude to a meal, as well as their motivation, commitment, and irritability. On retiring, they recorded bowel activity. Assessments were by visual analog scales. Jet lag was treated as the dependent variable and the symptoms as covariates in ANCOVAs. Fatigue was a powerful predictor of jet lag, provided it was measured at the same time, and some aspects of sleep predicted jet lag measured on retiring or rising. The other symptoms predicted jet lag less powerfully and/or at a wider range of times. It is concluded that, even though jet lag at any time of the day can be predicted from contemporaneous assessments of fatigue and that it can be predicted on retiring or rising from some aspects of changed sleep, jet lag is predicted less reliably from other symptoms, including aspects of mental performance. These findings question exactly what causes jet lag at a particular time of day, and so are relevant to studies which use this measurement to investigate the problems associated with time-zone transitions, and ways to ameliorate them.
Chronobiology International 12/2003; 20(6):1061-73. · 4.03 Impact Factor
