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ABSTRACT: Body condition score (BCS) around calving, and the typical BCS loss for up to 100 d after parturition, is associated with both production and reproductive performance of dairy cattle. In addition, there is public concern that thin cows may have impaired welfare, particularly in early lactation where feed demand exceeds pasture growth, and a lag exists between peak milk energy requirements and intake. The aim of this experiment was to determine how BCS at calving influences behavioral and physiological responses to a short-term feed restriction at 47 DIM. Body condition score (on a 10-point scale) at calving was manipulated by modifying the diets in the previous lactation of healthy dairy cattle to generate 3 treatment groups: low BCS (3.4; n = 17), medium BCS (4.6; n = 18), or high BCS (5.4; n = 20). Cows were tested in 4 groups for 8 consecutive days; testing consisted of different levels of feed allocation (d 1 and 2: 100%; d 3 and 4: 75%; d 5: 50%; d 6 to 8: 125%), where 100% was 15 kg of DM/cow per day. All BCS groups had similar and marked behavioral and physiological responses to feed restriction. For example, they increased vocalization, time spent eating silage and grazing, aggressive behavior, and fat metabolism (as measured by concentrations of β-hydroxybutyrate and nonesterified fatty acids), and reduced milk production. Body condition affected some of these responses. Fewer cows with low BCS engaged in aggressive interactions in a feed competition test (trough filled with silage that could be consumed in 15 min) on the first day of feed restriction (low: 32%; medium: 74%; high: 64%; standard error of difference = 15.4%). High-BCS cows had greater concentrations of β-hydroxybutyrate and nonesterified fatty acids throughout the experimental period, which suggests more fat mobilization; however, plasma leptin and fecal glucocorticosteroid metabolite concentrations were unaffected by BCS. Whereas cows demonstrated marked responses to feed restriction, the results suggest that a BCS of 3.4, 4.6, or 5.4 in healthy cows at calving does not overwhelmingly influence this response at 47 DIM.
Journal of Dairy Science 05/2013; · 2.56 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The nature of human-animal interactions is an important factor contributing to animal welfare and productivity. Reducing stress during routine husbandry procedures is likely to improve animal welfare. We examined how the type of early handling of calves affected responses to two common husbandry procedures, ear-tagging and disbudding. Forty Holstein-Friesian calves (n = 20/treatment) were exposed to one of two handling treatments daily from 1 to 5 weeks of age: (1) positive (n = 20), involving gentle handling (soft voices, slow movements, patting), and (2) negative (n = 20), involving rough handling (rough voices, rapid movements, pushing). Heart rate (HR), respiration rate (RR) and behaviour (activity, tail flicking) were measured before and after ear-tagging and disbudding (2 days apart). Cortisol was measured at -20 (baseline), 20 and 40 min relative to disbudding time. There were no significant treatment differences in HR, RR or behaviour in response to either procedure. However, the following changes occurred across both treatment groups. HR increased after disbudding (by 14.7 ± 4.0 and 18.6 ± 3.8 bpm, positive and negative, respectively; mean ± s.e.m.) and ear-tagging (by 8.7 ± 3.1 and 10.3 ± 3.0 bpm, positive and negative, respectively). After disbudding, there was an increase in RR (by 8.2 ± 3.4 and 9.3 ± 3.4 breaths/min, positive and negative, respectively), overall activity (by 9.4 ± 1.2 and 9.9 ± 1.3 frequency/min, positive and negative, respectively) and tail flicking (by 13.2 ± 2.8 and 11.2 ± 3.0 frequency/min, positive and negative, respectively), and cortisol increased from baseline at 20 min post procedure (by 10.3 ± 1.1 and 12.3 ± 1.1 nmol/l positive and negative, respectively). Although we recorded significant changes in calf responses during ear-tagging and disbudding, the type of prior handling had no effect on responses. The effects of handling may have been overridden by the degree of pain and/or stress associated with the procedures. Further research is warranted to understand the welfare impact and interaction between previous handling and responses to husbandry procedures.
animal 12/2012; · 1.74 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Bovine respiratory disease complex (BRD) causes considerable economic loss and biosecurity cost to the beef industry globally and also results in significant degradation to the welfare of affected animals. The successful treatment of this disease depends on the early, timely and cost effective identification of affected animals. The objective of the present study was to investigate the use of an automated, RFID driven, noninvasive infrared thermography technology to determine BRD in cattle. Sixty-five calves averaging 220 kg were exposed to standard industry practices of transport and auction. The animals were monitored for BRD using conventional biometric signs for clinical scores, core temperatures, haematology, serum cortisol and infrared thermal values over 3 weeks. The data collected demonstrated that true positive animals for BRD based on a gold standard including core temperature, clinical score, white blood cell number and neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio displayed higher peak infrared thermal values of 35.7±0.35 °C compared to true negative animals 34.9±0.22 °C (P<0.01). The study also demonstrated that such biometric data can be non-invasively and automatically collected based on a system developed around the animal's water station. It is concluded that the deployment of such systems in the cattle industry would aid animal managers and practitioners in the identification and management of BRD in cattle populations.
Research in Veterinary Science 11/2011; 93(2):928-35. · 1.65 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Cattle will readily use shade in warm weather, but less is known about voluntary use of sprinklers. We examined preferences of 96 Holstein-Friesian dairy cows (milk yield: 12.7±3.48 kg per day; mean±SD) for sprinklers, shade, or ambient conditions after walking 2.0 km or 0.3 km before afternoon milking (n=48 cows/distance). Each cow was individually tested on 3 consecutive days with a different paired choice each day: 1) shade or sprinklers, 2) shade or ambient conditions, 3) sprinklers or ambient conditions. Average air temperature during testing was 22.3°C. Cows preferred shade over sprinklers (62 vs. 38% ± 5.0%; mean ± SE) and shade over ambient conditions (65 vs. 35% ± 5.1%; mean±SE). Cows showed no preference between sprinklers and ambient conditions (44% of the cows chose sprinklers, SE=5.3%). The preference for shade over sprinklers and ambient conditions increased with air temperature, solar radiation, and wind speed. Walking distance did not influence the preference for any treatment. Respiration rate was decreased most by sprinklers (38% decrease) but also decreased in shade and ambient conditions (17 and 13% decrease, respectively; standard error of the difference=4.7%). Similarly, surface temperature was decreased most by sprinklers (11.4% decrease), compared with that by shade (1.0% decrease), or that by ambient conditions (1.4% increase; standard error of the difference=1.82%). Furthermore, sprinklers reduced insect avoidance behaviors, including number of tail flicks and hoof stamps. In conclusion, dairy cattle preferred to use shade in summer despite sprinklers being more efficient in decreasing heat load and insect avoidance behavior.
Journal of Dairy Science 01/2011; 94(1):273-83. · 2.56 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Changes in autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity are one of the first phases of a stress response, but they are rarely used to assess the welfare of farm animals. Eye temperature measured using infrared thermography (IRT) is proposed as an indicator of ANS activity because it may reflect changes in blood flow in the capillary beds of the conjunctiva. The aim was to determine whether epinephrine infusion would initiate eye temperature changes in calves. Sixteen 4-mo-old Friesian calves (124±5 kg) were assigned randomly to receive a jugular infusion of either epinephrine (4 μg/kg per min for 5 min) or saline. Eye temperature (°C), heart rate (HR), and HR variability (HRV) were recorded from 15 min before infusion until 10 min after it was completed. Blood samples collected via jugular catheter were assayed for epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol concentrations, and packed cell volume (PCV) was measured. No changes in any variable were observed with the saline infusion. Plasma epinephrine concentrations increased 90-fold with epinephrine infusion, which was associated with a decrease in eye temperature of 1.4±0.05°C. During epinephrine infusion, plasma norepinephrine concentrations decreased by half and HR decreased by 9.3±3.3 beats/min. The HRV measure, the root mean square of successive differences, increased by 49.7±9.2 ms, indicating a compensatory increase in parasympathetic activity. After epinephrine infusion, plasma cortisol concentrations increased by 10.4±1.7 ng/mL and PCV was higher (38 vs. 31±0.1%, epinephrine vs. saline, respectively). These results support the hypothesis that changes in eye temperature are mediated by the sympathetic component of the ANS. Infrared thermography is a noninvasive method to assess ANS activity for evaluating welfare of cattle.
Journal of Dairy Science 11/2010; 93(11):5252-7. · 2.56 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The role of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) in mediating eye temperature responses during painful procedures was examined in thirty 4-mo-old bull calves randomly assigned to 4 treatments: 1) sham handling control (C; n=8), 2) surgical castration (SC; n=6), 3) local anesthesia with sham handling (LAC; n=8), and 4) local anesthesia with surgical castration (LASC; n=8). Maximum eye temperature ( degrees C), measured by infrared thermography, heart rate (HR), and heart rate variability (HRV) were recorded continuously from 25 min before to 20 min after castration. The HRV was analyzed by examining segments of 512 interbeat intervals before and after treatments and comparing the root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD), high and low frequency (HF and LF, respectively) power, and the ratio of LF and HF powers (LF:HF). Jugular blood samples were analyzed for norepinephrine and epinephrine in C and SC treatments and for cortisol during all treatments. There was an immediate increase in HR following castration in SC (+15.3+/-2.8 beats/min) and LASC (+6.3+/-2.4 beats/min) calves. Eye temperature increased during the 20-min observation period in SC and LASC calves (+0.47+/-0.05 degrees C and +0.28+/-0.05 degrees C, respectively), and there was a small increase in C calves (+0.10+/-0.05 degrees C). Following castration in SC calves, there was an increase in RMSSD (+25.8+/-6.4) and HF power (+11.0+/-6.5) and LF:HF decreased (-2.1+/-0.7). Following castration in LASC, there was an increase in RMSSD (+18.1+/-4.9) and a decrease in LF power (-10.2+/-5.0). Cortisol increased above baseline within 15 min following treatment in both castrated groups, but was greater for SC calves (+18.4+/-2.3 ng/mL) than for LASC calves (+11.1+/-1.9 ng/mL). After castration, norepinephrine increased 3-fold and epinephrine increased by half in SC calves but not in C calves. There were no changes in HR, HRV, or cortisol responses to C or LAC treatments. Local anesthetic reduced, but did not eliminate, responses to surgical castration. The synchronized increase in catecholamine and HR responses immediately following SC treatment suggests the initial response was mediated by the sympathetic branch of the ANS. The subsequent changes in RMSSD, HF power, and LF:HF ratio indicated this was followed by an increase in parasympathetic activity. The use of HR, HRV, and infrared thermography measurements together provide a noninvasive means to assess ANS responses as indicators of acute pain in cattle.
Journal of Dairy Science 08/2010; 93(8):3602-9. · 2.56 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The effects of 2 common dry-off management procedures, feed restriction [8 vs. 16 kg of dry matter (DM)/d] and reduced milking frequency (once, 1x vs. twice, 2x/d), on the behavior and udder characteristics of dairy cattle were assessed in late lactation and the early dry period. Milking cows 1x instead of 2x in the week before dry off reduced milk yield (7.0 vs. 8.9 +/- 0.95 kg/d for 1x and 2x, respectively), but had little effect on behavior before or after cessation of milking. In comparison, feed restriction reduced milk yield (6.9 vs. 9.1 +/- 0.95 kg/d for 8 and 16 kg of DM/d, respectively), udder firmness after dry off (7.3 vs. 8.0 +/- 0.24 g force for 8 and 16 kg of DM/d, respectively), milk leakage (2 d after dry off, 14% of cows offered 8 kg of DM/d were leaking milk compared with 42% cows offered 16 kg of DM/d), and the likelihood of Streptococcus uberis intramammary infection (nonclinical mastitis; 12.5 vs. 62.5% of groups with at least 1 cow with a new intramammary infection for 8 and 16 kg of DM/d, respectively). Despite these benefits, cows offered only 8 kg of DM/d spent less time eating (7.3 vs. 8.3 +/- 0.28 h/d for 8 and 16 kg DM/d, respectively), more time lying (8.8 vs. 7.3 +/- 0.24 h/d), and vocalized more before dry off than cows offered 16 kg of DM/d (0.8 vs. 0.2 +/- 0.15 calls/min for 8 and 16 kg of DM/d, respectively). These behavioral changes indicate that this level of feed restriction may cause hunger. Information is needed about alternative dry-off procedures that maintain the health benefits and comfort associated with lower milk yield before dry off but prevent hunger, such as feeding low quality diets ad libitum.
Journal of Dairy Science 08/2009; 92(7):3194-203. · 2.56 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: This study examined the effects of a nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agent (NSAID) on physiological responses of calves immediately after hot-iron dehorning (DH) and during the time that local anesthetic (LA) wears off (2 to 3 h) after this procedure. Forty-six calves (33 +/- 0.3 d of age) were randomly assigned to 6 treatments: hot-iron DH versus sham DH with either no pain mitigation, LA alone, or LA with NSAID (i.v. Meloxicam). Eye temperature (measured using infrared thermography) was recorded every 5 min for 3 h after treatments. Heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) were recorded continuously; for analysis of HRV, short segments of 512 interbeat intervals were examined. After DH without LA or NSAID, HR increased by 35 +/- 3.0 beats/min in the first 5 min and remained elevated above baseline for 3 h. The HRV around the time of DH did not differ between treatments; however, the root mean square of successive differences decreased from 68 to 41 +/- 12.6 ms immediately following DH without pain relief, suggesting a decrease in vagal tone at this time. Between 2 and 3 h following DH with LA, there was a decrease in eye temperature (-0.6 +/- 0.1 degrees C), an increase in HR (8 +/- 3.0 beats per min) and changes in HRV. Changes in HRV at this time included a decreased high-frequency power and an increase in the low-frequency power and low-frequency/high-frequency ratio, indicating a change in sympatho-vagal balance. The changes in eye temperature, HR, and HRV between 2 and 3 h following DH with LA indicated the onset of pain coinciding with the time that the LA effects wear off. In addition, this study demonstrated that the combination of LA and NSAID mitigated the onset of pain responses when the LA wanes.
Journal of Dairy Science 05/2009; 92(4):1512-9. · 2.56 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Two experiments were conducted to determine whether maximum eye temperature, measured using infrared thermography (IRT), could be a non-invasive technique for detecting responses of cattle to handling procedures. Experiment one used six crossbred heifers randomly assigned to two groups in a crossover design and subjected to i) being hit with a plastic tube on the rump and ii) being startled by the sudden waving of a plastic bag. Experiment two used 32 crossbred bulls randomly assigned to three treatments: i) control, restraint only; ii) electric prod, two brief applications of an electric prod or, iii) startled, as in experiment one, accompanied by shouting. Exit speed (m s-1) was recorded on release from the restraint. Maximum eye temperature was recorded continuously pre- and post-treatment. In experiment one, eye temperature dropped rapidly between 20 and 40 s following both treatments and returned to baseline between 60 and 80 s following hitting and between 100 and 120 s following startling. In experiment two, eye temperature dropped between 0 and 20 s, following both treatments, and returned to baseline by 180 s, following startling plus shouting, but did not return to baseline for five minutes following electric prod. Exit speed tended to be faster following the electric prod. In conclusion, IRT detected responses that were due possibly to fear and/or pain associated with the procedures and may therefore be a useful, non-invasive method for assessing aversiveness of handling practices to cattle.
Animal welfare (South Mimms, England) 10/2008; 17(4):387-393. · 1.13 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The possibility that pain can be detected from changes in eye temperature and heart rate variability (HRV) during disbudding was examined in thirty calves, randomly assigned to four treatments: 1) sham handling (control), 2) local anaesthetic (LA, cornual nerve injection) and sham disbudded, 3) sham LA and disbudded, 4) LA and disbudded. During a 40 min sampling period, maximum eye temperature, behavior and HRV parameters were recorded continuously. One week later, twelve disbudded calves were injected with adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) or saline and maximum eye temperature was recorded. There was a rapid drop in eye temperature during the 5 min following disbudding without LA (P<0.05). Eye temperature then increased and was higher than baseline over the remaining sampling period following both disbudding procedures (P<0.001), a response which could not be explained by increased physical activity LA increased eye temperature prior to disbudding (P<0.001). Heart rate increased (P<0.001) during the 5 min following disbudding with and without LA, however, LF/HF ratio only increased during this time (P<0.01) following disbudding without LA. Eye temperature did not change following ACTH, suggesting that hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) activity is not responsible for the changes in eye temperature following disbudding. The increase in LF/HF ratio following disbudding without LA suggests an acute sympathetic response to pain, which could be responsible for the drop in eye temperature via vasoconstriction. HRV and eye temperature together may be a useful non-invasive and more immediate index of pain than HPA activity alone.
Physiology & Behavior 03/2008; 93(4-5):789-97. · 2.87 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: There is a need to assess the welfare of dairy cows that live outdoors under cold and wet conditions. This study combined a number of techniques to measure stress and make an assessment of welfare in this situation. Two groups of ten non-pregnant, non-lactating Holstein Friesian cows were exposed to a week of wind and rain (WR) or housed indoors (I) with pre- and post-treatment weeks indoors in a cross-over design. Wind and rain consisted of continual air movement (7.1 kph) using fans, water sprinkling for 15 min (3.0 mm) per hour, a mean temperature of 3.4°C and wind chill of -0.3°C. Internal body temperature was recorded every ten min and behaviour for 16 h per day. Blood, faeces and infrared temperatures were sampled at 0800h each morning during treatment weeks, and three times per week during pre- and post-treatment weeks. All cows were challenged with 2 ml Leptoshield Vaccine (CSL Animal Health, Australia) subcutaneously after 3 days of cold exposure to test immune responses. During WR, cows spent a greater proportion of time standing and less time lying down and eating than during I. Infrared temperatures were lower during WR than I in both dorsal and orbital (eye) regions. There was a distinct diurnal pattern of internal body temperature which had a greater amplitude during WR than I resulting from both a lower minimum and a higher maximum. The time of the minimum was 40 min later for WR than I. The overall mean body temperature was 0.07°C higher in WR than I. There were greater increases in plasma and faecal cortisol during WR than I, respectively. Total T4 was higher during WR than I. Non-esterified fatty acid concentration was higher in the week following WR than I. Total white blood cell numbers were lower during WR than I. No treatment differences were found for creatine kinase or for tumour necrosis factor, heat shock protein 90, interleukin 6 or interferon gamma expression in response to vaccination. In conclusion, this study applied a suite of stress measures to dairy cows exposed to extreme cold and wet conditions. Together, these measures indicated activation of the stress axis, physiological and behavioural adaptations to cold and a reduction in welfare. A number of these measures could be used to assess welfare under cold conditions on farms.
Animal welfare (South Mimms, England) 01/2008; 17(1):19-26. · 1.13 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The objective of this study was to investigate milking frequency as a potential stressor in Holstein–Friesian dairy cows managed in a pastoral farming system. The circadian body (vaginal) temperature rhythm was measured in cows milked twice-a-day (2x) or once-a-day (1x) in two experiments. The first experiment was conducted at peak lactation (50±11 days in milk, DIM) and the second in response to a transition from 2x to 1x milking at mid-lactation (153±21 DIM). At peak lactation, body temperature was continuously recorded for seven days in 40 dairy cows, milked either 2x (two groups, n=10 per group) or 1x (two groups, n=10 per group) from the time of calving. At mid-lactation, 60 dairy cows were milked either 2x (four groups, n=5 per group), 1x (four groups, n=5 per group) or switched from 2x to 1x on the afternoon of 156 DIM (2x:1x, four groups, n=5 per group). Body temperature was measured in three of the five cows per group (36 cows in total) for 10 days from 153 to 162 DIM. Milk yield and total grazing time (Experiment 2 only) were recorded in all cows. At peak lactation cows milked 2x had a higher (P≤0.051) mean body temperature between 1600 and 0000 h than 1x cows (38.6 vs. 38.4 °C; SED=0.03 °C). At mid-lactation, mean body temperature was also elevated between 1600 and 2000 h in 2x cows compared to 1x cows (2x: 38.6 °C, 1x:38.4 °C, SED=0.04 °C; P
Livestock Science - LIVEST SCI. 01/2008; 117(2):130-138.
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ABSTRACT: The possibility that changes in eye temperature, measured using infrared thermography (IRT), can detect stress in dairy cattle was examined by six different stimulations of the stress axis. Six cows were given six treatments in a random Latin-square design: 1) Control (saline) 2) ACTH (0.05 mg Synacthen) 3) bCRH (20 mug) 4) bCRH (40 mug) 5) epinephrine (1.4 mug /kg liveweight) and 6) social isolation. Treatments were administered at time 0 and blood samples were taken at -30, -15, 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 75, 90, 120, 180 and 240 min except for epinephrine which was sampled at -30, -15, -10, -5, 0, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, 60, 90 and 120 min. Core body temperature was recorded every 10 min and eye images collected every 2 min. Eye temperature and cortisol increased following catheterization (P<0.05). ACTH increased following bCRH, cortisol increased following ACTH and bCRH (P<0.001) and NEFA increased following epinephrine (P<0.001). Core body temperature was unaffected by treatments. Eye temperature was unaffected by CRH and epinephrine but was higher 30 and 60 min following control and ACTH (P<0.001). Our results provide evidence that exogenous HPA stimulation does not increase eye temperature. The increases in eye temperature following catheterization however raise the possibility that a cognitive component may be required for an eye temperature response to occur.
Physiology & Behavior 10/2007; 92(3):520-5. · 2.87 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The body temperature of dairy cows in pastoral systems during summer reaches a peak during and following the p.m. milking. Shade and sprinklers can be used separately or in combination at the milking parlor to reduce heat load. Farmers anecdotally report that the use of sprinklers reduces irritation from insects that occurs while cows are waiting for milking. Once daily, we assessed the effectiveness of short-term exposure to shade and sprinklers for cooling cows [via respiration rate and body (vaginal) temperature] and reducing insect-avoidance behaviors before the p.m. milking in a pasture-based dairy system. Head position was measured as an indicator of whether cattle were avoiding water from the sprinklers. Forty-eight Holstein-Friesian dairy cows were divided into 12 groups (4 cows per group, n = 3 groups/treatment) and were exposed to 1 of 4 treatments for 90 min before the p.m. milking: 1) shade, 2) sprinklers, 3) shade and sprinklers, or 4) uncooled control. Respiration rate was reduced by 30% with shade alone compared with controls [54 vs. 78 +/- 2.3 ( +/- SED) breaths/min, respectively]. Sprinklers alone (30 +/- 2.3 breaths/min) and the combined effects of shade and sprinklers (24 +/- 2.3 breaths/min) reduced the respiration rate by 60 and 67%, respectively, compared with controls. Shaded cows had lower body temperatures during the 90-min treatment period compared with controls (shade: 38.6 degrees C; shade and sprinklers: 38.6 degrees C; control: 38.9 +/- 0.09 degrees C). The decrease in body temperature of cows under sprinklers was more marked than for shade alone and remained lower for at least 4 h after milking (sprinklers: 38.7 degrees C; shade and sprinklers: 38.6 degrees C; shade: 38.9 degrees C; control: 39.2 +/- 0.10 degrees C). The sprinkler treatment reduced the number of tail flicks (control: 12.6 vs. sprinklers: 6.6 +/- 2.4 flicks/min) and hoof stamps (control: 4.4 vs. sprinkler: 2.2 +/- 0.5 stamps/min). Cows exposed to sprinklers spent more time with their heads lowered compared with cows in the shaded and control treatments. The reductions in body temperature and respiration rate attributable to shade and sprinklers were greatest when the temperature-humidity index and heat-load index were > or = 69 and 77, respectively, and cows benefited from cooling when these levels were exceeded.
Journal of Dairy Science 09/2007; 90(8):3671-80. · 2.56 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: In a two-period replicated crossover design, four groups of lactating Holstein Friesian dairy cows (n = 10 per group) were kept on pasture to investigate the effects of providing artificial shade in summer on their vaginal temperature, behaviour and milk production. Two groups had access to shade and two groups in adjacent paddocks had no shade for a 10-day period before the treatments were switched. The body temperature rhythm was recorded in all animals using vaginal data loggers. Daily milk yield and milk composition was measured for each cow. Standing without grazing, lying and grazing behaviour was recorded continuously by observers for two 24-h periods during each 10-day treatment period. Shade use was recorded daily from 0800 to 2000 h. The provision of shade reduced (P < 0.05) mean vaginal temperature. This was particularly evident between 1000 and 1500 h, when the increase in vaginal temperature was significantly (P < 0.001) lower in shaded cows compared to cows without shade. No effect of shade (P > 0.05) on the maximum and minimum vaginal temperature, or the amplitude of the vaginal temperature rhythm was found. Cows with access to shade preferred (P < 0.001) using it mainly during the mid-afternoon, while, in contrast, cows with no shade grazed more (P < 0.001) at this time. The total time spent grazing, standing without grazing and lying per 24 h did not differ (P > 0.05) between treatments. Milk production was higher (P < 0.05) in cows that had access to shade compared to those without, but milk composition was not affected (P > 0.05) by shade treatment. These data suggest that the provision of shade is an effective method to reduce heat load in dairy cows under New Zealand summer conditions and, in addition, may increase daily milk yield. Despite only mild summer conditions, vaginal temperature was elevated during the mid-afternoon in non-shaded cows but did not cause a significant disruption in the underlying circadian body temperature rhythm compared to shaded cows.
Livestock Science. 01/2006; 103(1-2):148-157.
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ABSTRACT: The body temperature of dairy cows in pastoral systems during summer reaches a peak during and following the p.m. milking. Shade and sprinklers can be used separately or in combination at the milking parlor to reduce heat load. Farmers anecdotally report that the use of sprinklers reduces irritation from insects that occurs while cows are waiting for milking. Once daily, we assessed the effectiveness of short-term exposure to shade and sprinklers for cooling cows [via respiration rate and body (vaginal) temperature] and reducing insect-avoidance behaviors before the p.m. milking in a pasture-based dairy system. Head position was measured as an indicator of whether cattle were avoiding water from the sprinklers. Forty-eight Holstein-Friesian dairy cows were divided into 12 groups (4 cows per group, n = 3 groups/treatment) and were exposed to 1 of 4 treatments for 90 min before the p.m. milking: 1) shade, 2) sprinklers, 3) shade and sprinklers, or 4) uncooled control. Respiration rate was reduced by 30% with shade alone compared with controls [54 vs. 78 ± 2.3 ( ± SED) breaths/min, respectively]. Sprinklers alone (30 ± 2.3 breaths/min) and the combined effects of shade and sprinklers (24 ± 2.3 breaths/min) reduced the respiration rate by 60 and 67%, respectively, compared with controls. Shaded cows had lower body temperatures during the 90-min treatment period compared with controls (shade: 38.6°C; shade and sprinklers: 38.6°C; control: 38.9 ± 0.09°C). The decrease in body temperature of cows under sprinklers was more marked than for shade alone and remained lower for at least 4 h after milking (sprinklers: 38.7°C; shade and sprinklers: 38.6°C; shade: 38.9°C; control: 39.2 ± 0.10°C). The sprinkler treatment reduced the number of tail flicks (control: 12.6 vs. sprinklers: 6.6 ± 2.4 flicks/min) and hoof stamps (control: 4.4 vs. sprinkler: 2.2 ± 0.5 stamps/min). Cows exposed to sprinklers spent more time with their heads lowered compared with cows in the shaded and control treatments. The reductions in body temperature and respiration rate attributable to shade and sprinklers were greatest when the temperature-humidity index and heat-load index were ≥ 69 and 77, respectively, and cows benefited from cooling when these levels were exceeded.
Journal of Dairy Science.
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ABSTRACT: Human-animal relationships affect the production and welfare of animals. We investigated whether the type of handling of dairy calves influences their response towards humans. Forty, group-housed, Holstein-Friesian calves were exposed to either positive (e.g. soft voices, slow movements, patting) or negative (e.g. rough voices, rapid movements, pushing) handling (n=20 calves/treatment, 5 calves/group), twice daily (7 min/session) from 4 days to 5 weeks of age. Reactions towards humans were investigated around 4 weeks of age in a 'calf escape test' in their home pens, and by measuring the flight distance in a raceway. In the calf escape test, each calf was given a score between 0 and 4 depending on whether the observer could (1) make eye contact, (2) take 1, or (3) 2 steps towards the calf, or (4) touch the calf before it moved away (defined as moving both forelegs). Data were analysed using ANOVA. Calves that received positive handling showed less avoidance behaviour (mean score; positive:3.7, negative:2.8, sd:0.66, p=0.039) but there was no difference between the treatment groups in flight distance (positive:0.6m, negative:0.7m, sed:0.24m, p=0.526). Calves that received positive handling were 3 times more likely to voluntarily approach a human within 1min, compared to negatively handled calves (50% vs 17% of the calves approached the human, sed: 9.8%, p=0.015). When the calves were 3 months old, we repeated the flight distance and calf escape tests and added a control group (n=20) of the same age that had been reared under normal farm management (minimal handling). Controls showed more avoidance behaviour in the calf escape test (mean score; positive:1.5, negative:1.0, control:0.3, sd:0.21, p<0.001) and greater flight distances (positive:3.3m, negative:3.7m, control:4.9m, sed:0.40m, p<0.001). In conclusion, the type and possibly the amount of handling during early rearing influence the behaviour of calves towards humans, which may have implications for animal welfare
