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ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Psychotic phenomena appear to form a continuum with normal experience and beliefs, and may build on common emotional interpersonal concerns. AIMS: We tested predictions that paranoid ideation is exponentially distributed and hierarchically arranged in the general population, and that persecutory ideas build on more common cognitions of mistrust, interpersonal sensitivity and ideas of reference. METHOD: Items were chosen from the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis II Disorders (SCID-II) questionnaire and the Psychosis Screening Questionnaire in the second British National Survey of Psychiatric Morbidity (n = 8580), to test a putative hierarchy of paranoid development using confirmatory factor analysis, latent class analysis and factor mixture modelling analysis. RESULTS: Different types of paranoid ideation ranged in frequency from less than 2% to nearly 30%. Total scores on these items followed an almost perfect exponential distribution (r = 0.99). Our four a priori first-order factors were corroborated (interpersonal sensitivity; mistrust; ideas of reference; ideas of persecution). These mapped onto four classes of individual respondents: a rare, severe, persecutory class with high endorsement of all item factors, including persecutory ideation; a quasi-normal class with infrequent endorsement of interpersonal sensitivity, mistrust and ideas of reference, and no ideas of persecution; and two intermediate classes, characterised respectively by relatively high endorsement of items relating to mistrust and to ideas of reference. CONCLUSIONS: The paranoia continuum has implications for the aetiology, mechanisms and treatment of psychotic disorders, while confirming the lack of a clear distinction from normal experiences and processes.
The British journal of psychiatry: the journal of mental science 05/2013; · 6.62 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Little national evidence exists on disordered eating patterns in the UK. This study examined the prevalence and nature of disordered eating patterns in the National Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey 2007.
Responses to the screening tool for eating disorders (SCOFF) and body mass index (BMI) were analysed using latent class analysis (n = 7,001). Multinomial logistic regression explored the associations between latent classes and mental health comorbidities.
The prevalence of possible eating disorders in England using the SCOFF was 6.3 %; this decreased to 1.6 % when accounting for the negative impact feelings about food had on the respondent's life. Five latent classes were identified: classes 1 and 2 resembled known eating disorders ('marginal anorexia' relating to anorexia nervosa and 'binge eaters' relating to bulimia nervosa/binge eating disorder); class 3 consisted of people who were obese, but did not experience eating problems; class 4 was morbidly obese, with an elevated risk of anxiety disorders; class 5 was labelled as 'normal eaters', with a low probability of eating problems and a normal BMI.
Adults assigned to eating disorder type classes are at increased risk for mental health comorbidities and poorer social functioning. Information presented herein on clustering of disordered eating patterns may help clinicians identify those men and women risk for an eating disorder.
Social Psychiatry 05/2013; 48(5):783-93. · 2.05 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Background Psychotic phenomena appear to form a continuum with normal experience and beliefs, and may build upon common emotional interpersonal concerns.
Aims We tested predictions that paranoid ideation is exponentially distributed and hierarchically arranged in the general population, and that persecutory ideas build on more common cognitions of mistrust, interpersonal sensitivity and ideas of reference.
Method Items were chosen from the SCID-II questionnaire and the Psychosis Screening Questionnaire in the second British National Survey of Psychiatric Morbidity (N=8580), to test a putative hierarchy of paranoid development using confirmatory factor analysis, latent class analysis and factor mixture modelling analysis.
Results: Different types of paranoid ideation ranged in frequency from less than 2% to nearly 30%. Total scores on these items followed an almost perfect exponential distribution (r=.99). Our four a priori first-order factors were corroborated (Inter-personal Sensitivity; Mistrust; Ideas of Reference; Ideas of Persecution). These mapped onto four classes of individual respondents: a rare, severe, Persecutory Class with high endorsement of all item factors, including persecutory ideation; a Quasi-normal Class with infrequent endorsement of interpersonal sensitivity, mistrust and ideas of reference and no ideas of persecution; and two intermediate classes, characterised respectively by relatively high endorsement of items relating to mistrust and to ideas of reference.
Conclusions: The paranoia continuum has implications for the aetiology, mechanisms and treatment of psychotic disorders, while confirming the lack of a clear distinction from normal experiences and processes.
The British Journal of Psychiatry 03/2013; · 6.62 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The aim of this project was to assess the current evidence from longitudinal studies for childhood determinants of adult mental illness. Because of the variable and often prolonged period between factors in childhood and the identification of mental illness in adults, prospective studies, particularly birth cohorts, offer the best chance of demonstrating associations in individuals. A review was undertaken in 2006 of the published literature from longitudinal studies, together with some large-scale retrospective studies and relevant reviews which provided supplementary evidence. The main focus was upon potentially ameliorable characteristics, experiences or situations of childhood; however, other factors, not determinants but pre-cursors, associated with later mental illness could not be left out. Seven major electronic data-bases of published research were interrogated with a range of key-words and the results supplemented from personal searches, enquiries and reference trails. In excess of 1,500 abstracts were read to select 250 papers for full review. The material was assessed in relation to ten factors: Psychological disturbance; Genetic Influences; Neurological Deviance; Neuroticism; Behaviour; School Performance; Adversity; Child Abuse or Neglect; Parenting and parent-child relationships; Disrupted and Disfunctional Families. In 2011 the search was repeated for the period 2006 to mid-2011, using the same search terms and supplemented in the same manner. Over 1,800 abstracts emerged and almost 200 papers selected for more detailed review. These were then integrated into the original text with modifications where necessary. The whole text was then revised and edited in January / February 2012. There is continuing evidence for the association with later mental ill-health for each of these ten factors, but with different degrees of conviction. The evidence for each is discussed in detail and weighed both separately and in relation to others. These are then summarised, and the research implications are considered. Finally, the implications for prevention are discussed together with the practical potential for preventive and health-promoting programmes.
Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health 01/2013; 9:1-50.
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Albina R. Torres,
Paul Moran,
Paul Bebbington, Traolach Brugha,
Dinesh Bhugra,
Jeremy W. Coid,
Michael Farrell,
Rachel Jenkins,
Glyn Lewis,
Howard Meltzer,
Martin Prince
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ABSTRACT: BackgroundPrevious studies indicate that most individuals with obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) have comorbid personality disorders
(PDs), particularly from the anxious cluster. However, the nature and strength of this association remains unclear, as the
majority of previous studies have relied heavily on clinical populations. We analysed the prevalence of screen positive personality
disorder in a representative sample of adults with OCD living in private households in the UK.
MethodsA secondary analysis of data from the 2000 British National Survey of Psychiatric Morbidity. The prevalence of PD, as determined
by the SCID-II questionnaire, was compared in participants with OCD, with other neuroses and non-neurotic controls. Within
the OCD group we also analysed possible differences relating to sex and subtypes of the disorder.
ResultsThe prevalence of any screen positive PD in the OCD group (N=108) was 74%, significantly greater than in both control groups. The most common screen positive categories were paranoid,
obsessive–compulsive, avoidant, schizoid and schizotypal. Compared to participants with other neuroses, OCD cases were more
likely to screen positively for paranoid, avoidant, schizotypal, dependent and narcissistic PDs. Men with OCD were more likely
to screen positively for PDs in general, cluster A PDs, antisocial, obsessive–compulsive and narcissistic categories. The
presence of comorbid neuroses in people with OCD had no significant effect on the prevalence of PD.
ConclusionsPersonality pathology is highly prevalent among people with OCD who are living in the community and should be routinely assessed,
as it may affect help-seeking behaviour and response to treatment.
Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 04/2012; 41(11):862-867. · 2.70 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The relationship between physical ill health, disability, and depression is not straightforward. Both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies have clearly shown that medical illness and physical disability are strongly associated with depression.
To test the hypothesis that disability is associated with an increased prevalence of depression irrespective of physical health problems and that this is proportionate to the severity of disability (measured in terms of the number of difficulties in daily activities and the degree of dependence on others).
Using a random probability sample design, 7460 respondents were interviewed for the third national survey of psychiatric morbidity of adults in the private household population in England. Fieldwork was carried out throughout 2007. The prevalence of depression was established by the administration of the revised Clinical Interview Schedule (CIS-R), while disability was measured by reported difficulties in activities of daily living (ADL) and instrumental activities of daily living (IADL).
Disability was associated with depression even after adjustment for physical ill health. The number of ADL/IADL difficulties was directly related to the likelihood of respondents having depression. Dependence on others was not associated with depression once severity of disability had been accounted for.
All ADL/IADL limitations are significantly associated with depression and there seems to be a cumulative effect irrespective of whether the limitation is in personal care or in instrumental activities such as mobility problems.
Disability and Health Journal 04/2012; 5(2):102-10. · 0.98 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Personal debt is now recognized as one of the many factors associated with common mental disorders (CMD). We aim to estimate the prevalence of 'specific' mental disorders based on ICD-10 research diagnostic criteria by type of debt and quantify the additional influence of addictive behaviours. METHOD: A random probability sample comprising 7461 respondents were interviewed for the third national survey of psychiatric morbidity of adults in England carried out in 2007. The prevalence of CMD was estimated from the administration of the CIS-R. Respondents were asked about sources of debt and their borrowing choices. RESULTS: In 2007, 8.5% of adults were in arrears. Adults in debt were three times more likely than those not in debt to have CMD. The increased likelihood of CMD among those in arrears was found for all CMD and was irrespective of source of debt-housing, utilities and purchases on credit. The situation was exacerbated among those with addictive behaviours-alcohol or drug dependence or problem gambling. Those with multiple sources of debt and who had to obtain money from pawnbrokers and moneylenders had the highest rate of CMD, ∼50%. CONCLUSIONS: Debt is one of the major risk factors for CMD. This has practical implications for both health services and financial services, which both need to be alert to the association and adapt and train their respective services accordingly so that people in debt can access help for mental disorders and people with mental disorders can access help for debt.
The European Journal of Public Health 03/2012; · 2.73 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Relatively little is known about rates of comorbid drug and alcohol problems in people with schizophrenia outside the USA. Most studies have recruited from single countries. Newly available data provided an unmatched opportunity to investigate the prevalence of comorbid dependence on alcohol and other psychoactive substances in people with schizophrenia in France, Germany and the UK at the same time. The European Schizophrenia Cohort study data set used semi-structured clinical interviews to establish DSM-IV diagnoses. 1,208 patients were interviewed in nine centres. The lifetime rate for comorbid dependence on any substance was highest in the UK (35 %), but considerably lower in Germany (21 %) and in France (19 %), and generally more than double the past-year rates. Dependence on alcohol and on other psychoactive substances showed similar variations (comorbid alcohol dependence: UK 26 %; Germany 18 %; France 14 %; comorbid drug dependence: UK 18 %; Germany 8 %; France 7 %). Differences within countries persisted after controlling for individual characteristics. The relative odds of dependence were higher than in the general population, but varied between countries and centres. Dependence disorders are a common problem in people with schizophrenia in Western Europe, although effective service configurations have yet to be developed. Overall, these European rates are less than those reported from the USA. Research comparing people with current comorbidity with those who are no longer dependent is needed.
Archiv f ur Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten 03/2012; 262(7):607-16. · 2.75 Impact Factor
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Maria Calem,
Jatinder Bisla,
Aysha Begum,
Michael Dewey,
Paul E Bebbington, Traolach Brugha,
Claudia Cooper,
Rachel Jenkins,
James Lindesay,
Sally McManus,
Howard Meltzer,
Nicola Spiers,
Scott Weich,
Robert Stewart
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ABSTRACT: To investigate changes over 15 years in the prevalence of insomnia and its association with demographic characteristics and hypnotic medication use.
Analysis of 3 cross-sectional national mental health surveys carried out in 1993, 2000, and 2007, which used comparable sampling methods and identical insomnia assessments.
Adults living in private households in England.
20,503 people aged 16-64 years.
Insomnia was defined according to 4 different criteria, using relevant questions from the revised Clinical Interview Schedule. Modest increases in insomnia prevalence were found over the survey periods (any symptoms increasing from 35.0% in 1993 to 38.6% in 2007; insomnia diagnosis from 3.1% to 5.8%, respectively). In all 3 surveys, similar strengths of association in relation to all criteria were found, with female gender, increased age, lower educational attainment, depression, unemployment, economic inactivity, and widowed, divorced, or separated status. Prevalence of hypnotic use was double in 2000 (0.8%) compared to 1993 (0.4%); from limited information on selected medications, there was no such increase between 2000 and 2007. The reasons reported for any sleep disturbance over the last month were generally similar across surveys, the most marked change being illness/discomfort increasing as an explanation from 14.3% to 17.4% to 19.0%.
In the English general population, insomnia (by any definition) showed a modest but steady increase in prevalence over a 15-year period. Strengths of associations with demographic factors and self-reported reasons for sleep disturbance remained reasonably stable over this period.
Sleep 01/2012; 35(3):377-84. · 5.05 Impact Factor
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Stephani L Hatch,
Charlotte Woodhead,
Souci Frissa,
Nicola T Fear,
Maria Verdecchia,
Robert Stewart,
Abraham Reichenberg,
Craig Morgan,
Paul Bebbington,
Sally McManus, Traolach Brugha,
Bwalya Kankulu,
Jennifer L Clark,
Billy Gazard,
Robert Medcalf,
Matthew Hotopf
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ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Reliance on national figures may be underestimating the extent of mental ill health in urban communities. This study demonstrates the necessity for local information on common mental disorder (CMD) and substance use by comparing data from the South East London Community Health (SELCoH) study with those from a national study, the 2007 English Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Study (APMS). METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Data were used from two cross-sectional surveys, 1698 men and women residing in south London and 7403 men and women in England. The main outcome, CMD, was indicated by a score of 12 or above on the Revised Clinical Interview Schedule. Secondary outcomes included hazardous alcohol use and illicit drug use. SELCoH sample prevalence estimates of CMD were nearly twice that of the APMS England sample estimates. There was a four-fold greater proportion of depressive episode in the SELCoH sample than the APMS sample. The prevalence of hazardous alcohol use was higher in the national sample. Illicit drug use in the past year was higher in the SELCoH sample, with cannabis and cocaine the illicit drugs reported most frequently in both samples. In comparisons of the SELCoH sample with the APMS England sample and the APMS sample from the Greater London area in combined datasets, these differences remained after adjusting for socio-demographic and socioeconomic indicators for all outcomes. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Local information for estimating the prevalence of CMD and substance use is essential for surveillance and service planning. There were similarities in the demographic and socioeconomic factors related to CMD and substance use across samples.
PLoS ONE 01/2012; 7(12):e48012. · 4.09 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: There are few data sources on the prevalence of same-sex sexual orientation in England.We aimed to measure the prevalence of same-sex orientation and behavior in the English general population and assess the impact of enquiry format on reporting. The Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey 2007 used a multi-stage, stratified probability-sampling design (n=7,403). Two questions addressed sexual orientation and sexual partnership and each had two versions. Version A of the sexual orientation question used "homosexual." Version B used "gay or lesbian." Version A of the sexual partnership question required participants who had male and female partners to say which was predominant, while Version B had a midpoint response option: "about equally with men and women." Participants were randomized between versions. Overall, 5.3% of men and 5.6%of women reported they were not entirely heterosexual. The question using "gay or lesbian" elicited higher (though not statistically significant) reporting of non-heterosexual orientation than the question using "homosexual." A significantly larger proportion of men and women (96.0 and 96.1%) reported entirely heterosexual partnerships in response to Version A of the partnership question than in response to Version B (94.0 and 92.9%) where Version B asked specifically about "kissing, touching, intercourse, or any other form of sex." These figures constitute the first national prevalence data on combined sexual orientation and sexual behavior in England, based on a random probability sample of the general population. They demonstrate that people are willing to report their sexual orientation in survey research, but reporting is sensitive to question wording.
Archives of Sexual Behavior 10/2011; 41(3):631-9. · 3.53 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Our theoretical model proposes that insomnia, worry, and negative affect are important determinants of paranoid thinking. Anxiety produces anticipation of threat, depression increases the sense of vulnerability, worry leads to implausible ideas, and insomnia exacerbates negative affect and creates an altered perceptual state. The study objective was to examine for the first time these factors as predictors of the onset of new paranoid thinking and of the persistence of existing paranoid thinking.
A total of 2,382 participants in the 2000 British National Psychiatric Morbidity Survey were followed-up 18 months after their first assessment. Baseline assessments were used to predict the development and persistence of paranoid thinking at follow-up. Data were weighted to be representative of the general household population.
Insomnia, worry, anxiety, depression and depressive ideas were each substantial predictors both of new inceptions of paranoia and of the persistence of existing paranoid thinking. Worry and insomnia were the strongest predictors. For example, insomnia at the first assessment led to a more than threefold increase in later inceptions of paranoid thinking.
The study indicates that insomnia, worry, anxiety and depression are potential risk factors for new inceptions of paranoid thinking. The results also corroborate an emerging literature indicating that anxiety, worry and depression may encourage the persistence of paranoid thinking. The study provides the first longitudinal evidence linking insomnia and paranoia. The important clinical implication is that the use of interventions for common mental health difficulties in people with psychosis may have the additional benefit of reducing paranoia.
Social Psychiatry 09/2011; 47(8):1195-203. · 2.05 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Mental well-being underpins many aspects of health and social functioning, and is economically important.
To describe mental well-being in a general population sample and to determine the extent to which mental well-being and mental illness are independent of one another.
Secondary analysis of a survey of 7293 adults in England. Nine survey questions were identified as possible indicators of mental well-being. Common mental disorders (ICD-10) were ascertained using the Revised Clinical Interview Schedule (CIS-R). Principal components analysis was used to describe the factor structure of mental well-being and to generate mental well-being indicators.
A two-factor solution found eight out of nine items with strong loadings on well-being. Eight items corresponding to hedonic and eudaemonic well-being accounted for 36.9% and 14.3% of total variance respectively. Separate hedonic and eudaemonic well-being scales were created. Hedonic well-being (full of life; having lots of energy) declined with age, while eudaemonic well-being (getting on well with family and friends; sense of belonging) rose steadily with age. Hedonic well-being was lower and eudaemonic well-being higher in women. Associations of well-being with age, gender, income and self-rated health were little altered by adjustment for symptoms of mental illness.
In a large nationally representative population sample, two types of well-being were distinguished and reliably assessed: hedonic and eudaemonic. Associations with mental well-being were relatively independent of symptoms of mental illness. Mental well-being can remain even in the presence of mental suffering.
The British journal of psychiatry: the journal of mental science 07/2011; 199(1):23-8. · 6.62 Impact Factor
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Charlotte Woodhead,
Roberto J Rona,
Amy C Iversen,
Deirdre MacManus,
Matthew Hotopf,
Kimberlie Dean,
Sally McManus,
Howard Meltzer, Traolach Brugha,
Rachel Jenkins,
Simon Wessely,
Nicola T Fear
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ABSTRACT: In the context of increasing concerns for the health of UK armed forces veterans, this study aims to compare the prevalence of current mental, physical and behavioural difficulties in conscripted national service veterans with population controls, and to assess the impact of length of service in the military. The compulsory nature of national service sets these veterans apart from younger veterans.
Data are drawn from a nationally representative community-dwelling sample of England. We compared 484 male national service veterans to 301 male non-veterans aged 65+ years.
There were no differences in mental, behavioural or physical outcomes, except that veterans were less likely to have "any mental disorder" than non-veterans (age adjusted OR = 0.56, 95% CI 0.31, 0.99). Longer serving veterans were older but were not different in terms of mental, behavioural or physical outcomes.
Community-dwelling national service veterans are at no greater risk of current adverse mental, physical or behavioural health than population controls.
Social Psychiatry 07/2011; 46(7):559-66. · 2.05 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: A number of studies in a range of samples attest a link between childhood sexual abuse and psychosis.
To use data from a large representative general population sample (Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey 2007) to test hypotheses that childhood sexual abuse is linked to psychosis, and that the relationship is consistent with mediation by revictimisation experiences, heavy cannabis use, anxiety and depression.
The prevalence of psychosis was established operationally in a representative cross-sectional survey of the adult household population of England (n = 7353). Using computer-assisted self-interview, a history of various forms of sexual abuse was established, along with the date of first abuse.
Sexual abuse before the age of 16 was strongly associated with psychosis, particularly if it involved non-consensual sexual intercourse (odds ratio (OR) = 10.14, 95% CI 4.8-21.3, population attributable risk fraction 14%). There was evidence of partial mediation by anxiety and depression, but not by heavy cannabis use nor revictimisation in adulthood.
The association between childhood sexual abuse and psychosis was large, and may be causal. These results have important implications for the nature and aetiology of psychosis, for its treatment and for primary prevention.
The British journal of psychiatry: the journal of mental science 04/2011; 199(1):29-37. · 6.62 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: It is clinically and theoretically plausible that insomnia contributes to the development and maintenance of paranoid fears. The primary aim of the study was to establish in a large sample whether insomnia and paranoia are associated more strongly than by chance. Cross-sectional data on paranoia, insomnia, anxiety, worry, depression, irritability, and cannabis use were obtained from the second British National Survey of Psychiatric Morbidity, a general population survey of adults aged 16-74 years living in Great Britain (N = 8580). It was found that insomnia was associated with an approximately two to threefold increase in paranoid thinking. Paranoia and insomnia were both strongly associated with the presence of anxiety, worry, depression, irritability and cannabis use. In a path analysis the association of paranoia and insomnia was partially explained by the affective symptoms, and, to a much lesser degree, cannabis use. The results are consistent with recent developments in the cognitive understanding of persecutory delusions, in which insomnia, negative affect, and substance use are identified as key factors. Longitudinal studies of insomnia and paranoia, and tests of the effects of sleep interventions on levels of paranoia, are now required to examine causality.
Journal of psychiatric research 04/2010; 44(15):1021-6. · 3.72 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Our aim was to examine patterns of Axis II co-morbidity using data from the national survey of psychiatric morbidity among prisoners in England and Wales.
A one-in-five sub-sample of participants in a survey of psychiatric morbidity among prisoners in England and Wales was interviewed using the Schedule for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry and the Structured Clinical Interview for the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders Axis II personality disorders (PD). Logistic regression analysis was conducted adjusting for confounders of associations with co-morbid psychopathology disorders, age and gender.
The most prevalent Axis II disorders in the sample were anti-social, paranoid and borderline PD. Following logistic regression, anti-social and borderline PD demonstrated high levels of co-morbidity with both Axis I and other Axis II disorders, narcissistic PD with other Axis II, and paranoid and avoidant PD with Axis I disorders.
Certain Axis II disorders may increase the risk for lifetime Axis I disorders. Although appropriate statistical procedures reduce the level of Axis II co-morbidity, some patterns may be artefacts of a diagnostic system encouraging multiple diagnostic categories.
Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health 11/2009; 19(5):321-33. · 1.28 Impact Factor
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Social Psychiatry 09/2009; 44(11):899-904. · 2.05 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: To test the hypothesis that the association previously reported between moderate alcohol use and better cognition is an artefact of confounding by (a) higher premorbid education and socioeconomic status; (b) a lifestyle of moderation (using smoking as a risk marker); and (c) decreased alcohol consumption in people with physical illnesses.
Data were analysed from people aged 60-74 years interviewed for the 2000 British National Psychiatric Morbidity Survey, representative of people living in private homes. Alcohol use information was available for 1985 (98.9%) of the eligible participants, of whom 1735 (87.4%) who drank moderately or abstained were included in the analyses. Our main outcome measures were the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), the Telephone Interview for Cognitive Status Screen for Cognitive Impairment and the National Adult Reading Test to measure crystallised (premorbid) intelligence. Our physical health measures were the number of prescribed medications and physical illness reported, and the 12 item Short Form Health Survey's Physical Component Score.
The relationship between current cognition and alcohol use was reduced and no longer significant after considering premorbid intelligence or physical health. In our final model, the significant predictors of current cognition among non-problem drinkers were: age (B = -0.13, -0.18 to -0.08; p<0.001) and crystallised intelligence (B = 0.14, 0.12 to 0.17; p<0.001). Smoking was not associated with cognition.
In people who were not problem drinkers, higher alcohol intake was not associated with improved current cognition after controlling for premorbid intelligence and physical health. Our findings suggest that, despite previous suggestions, moderate alcohol consumption does not protect older people from cognitive decline.
Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry 08/2009; 80(11):1236-9. · 4.87 Impact Factor
