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Clayton O Onyango,
Regina Njeru,
Sidi Kazungu,
Rachel Achilla,
Wallace Bulimo,
Stephen R Welch,
Patricia A Cane,
Rory N Gunson,
Laura L Hammitt,
J Anthony,
G Scott, James A Berkley,
D James Nokes
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ABSTRACT: Background. Influenza data gaps in sub-Saharan Africa include incidence, case fatality, seasonal patterns, and associations with prevalent disorders. Methods. Nasopharyngeal samples from children aged <12 years who were admitted to Kilifi District Hospital during 2007–2010 with severe or very severe pneumonia and resided in the local demographic surveillance system were screened for influenza A, B, and C viruses by molecular methods. Outpatient children provided comparative data. Results. Of 2002 admissions, influenza A virus infection was diagnosed in 3.5% (71), influenza B virus infection, in 0.9% (19); and influenza C virus infection, in 0.8% (11 of 1404 tested). Four patients with influenza died. Among outpatients, 13 of 331 (3.9%) with acute respiratory infection and 1 of 196 without acute respiratory infection were influenza positive. The annual incidence of severe or very severe pneumonia, of influenza (any type), and of influenza A, was 1321, 60, and 43 cases per 100 000 <5 years of age, respectively. Peak occurrence was in quarters 3–4 each year, and approximately 50% of cases involved infants: temporal association with bacteremia was absent. Hypoxia was more frequent among pneumonia cases involving influenza (odds ratio, 1.78; 95% confidence interval, 1.04–1.96). Influenza A virus subtypes were seasonal H3N2 (57%), seasonal H1N1 (12%), and 2009 pandemic H1N1 (7%). Conclusions. The burden of influenza was small during 2007–2010 in this pediatric hospital in Kenya. Influenza A virus subtype H3N2 predominated, and 2009 pandemic influenza A virus subtype H1N1 had little impact. A recent review of seasonal influenza during 1998– 2009 revealed a paucity of epidemiological data throughout most of sub-Saharan Africa, including Kenya [1]. In particular, there were few influenza-associated data on age-specific incidence, mortality, seasonal variation, and relationship with common co-occurring conditions, including human immunodefi-ciency virus (HIV) infection, malnutrition, bacterial pneumonia, and malaria. In this study, we report the results of surveillance for influenza among patients
The Journal of Infectious Diseases 12/2012; · 6.41 Impact Factor
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Clayton O Onyango,
Regina Njeru,
Sidi Kazungu,
Rachel Achilla,
Wallace Bulimo,
Stephen R Welch,
Patricia A Cane,
Rory N Gunson,
Laura L Hammitt,
J Anthony G Scott, James A Berkley,
D James Nokes
[show abstract]
[hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: Background. Influenza data gaps in sub-Saharan Africa include incidence, case fatality, seasonal patterns, and associations with prevalent disorders. Methods. Nasopharyngeal samples from children aged <12 years who were admitted to Kilifi District Hospital during 2007-2010 with severe or very severe pneumonia and resided in the local demographic surveillance system were screened for influenza A, B, and C viruses by molecular methods. Outpatient children provided comparative data. Results. Of 2002 admissions, influenza A virus infection was diagnosed in 3.5% (71), influenza B virus infection, in 0.9% (19); and influenza C virus infection, in 0.8% (11 of 1404 tested). Four patients with influenza died. Among outpatients, 13 of 331 (3.9%) with acute respiratory infection and 1 of 196 without acute respiratory infection were influenza positive. The annual incidence of severe or very severe pneumonia, of influenza (any type), and of influenza A, was 1321, 60, and 43 cases per 100 000 <5 years of age, respectively. Peak occurrence was in quarters 3-4 each year, and approximately 50% of cases involved infants: temporal association with bacteremia was absent. Hypoxia was more frequent among pneumonia cases involving influenza (odds ratio, 1.78; 95% confidence interval, 1.04-1.96). Influenza A virus subtypes were seasonal H3N2 (57%), seasonal H1N1 (12%), and 2009 pandemic H1N1 (7%). Conclusions. The burden of influenza was small during 2007-2010 in this pediatric hospital in Kenya. Influenza A virus subtype H3N2 predominated, and 2009 pandemic influenza A virus subtype H1N1 had little impact.
The Journal of Infectious Diseases 12/2012; 206 Suppl 1:S61-7. · 6.41 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: To determine the predictive value for death before 12 months of age of mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) and weight-for-length Z score (WFLz).
A retrospective cohort analysis of infants living in Keneba, in rural Gambia, was conducted. Anthropometric measures were obtained from demographic surveillance system records for infants registered between February 1974 and July 2008 who had had MUAC and WFLz recorded at 6-14 weeks of age and vital status recorded at least once more. Hazard ratios (HRs), population attributable fractions and areas under receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were estimated to assess the predictive value for death in infancy of MUAC and WFLz.
Of 2876 infants included in the analysis, 40 died before the age of 12 months. The HR for death in this group versus in well-nourished infants was 5.8 (95% confidence interval, CI: 1.6-21) for a WFLz < -3. HRs for MUACs below the thresholds of 115 mm, 110 mm and 105 mm were 4.5 (95% CI: 1.4-15), 9.5 (95% CI: 2.6-35) and 23 (95% CI: 4.2-122), respectively. The attributable fractions for a MUAC < 130 mm and a WFLz < 0 were 51% and 13%, respectively. The areas under the ROC curve for death in infancy were 0.55 (95% CI: 0.46 to 0.64) for WFLz and 0.64 (95% CI: 0.55 to 0.73) for MUAC.
Among infants aged 6 to 14 weeks, unadjusted MUAC showed good performance in identifying infants at increased risk of death.
Bulletin of the World Health Organisation 12/2012; 90(12):887-94. · 4.64 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Reducing childhood mortality in resource-poor regions depends on effective interventions to decrease neonatal mortality from severe infection, which contributes up to a half of all neonatal deaths. There are key differences in resource-poor, compared to resource-rich, countries in terms of diagnosis, supportive care and treatment. In resource-poor settings, diagnosis is based on identifying clinical syndromes from international guidelines; microbiological investigations are restricted to a few research facilities. Low levels of staffing and equipment limit the provision of basic supportive care, and most facilities cannot provide respiratory support. Empiric antibiotic treatment guidelines are based on few aetiological and antimicrobial susceptibility data. Research on improving health care systems to provide effective supportive care, and implementation of simple pragmatic interventions, such as low-cost respiratory support, are essential, together with improved surveillance to monitor emerging drug resistance and treatment failures. Reductions in mortality will also be achieved through prevention of infection; including emerging vaccination and anti-sepsis strategies.
Early human development 09/2012; · 2.12 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Abstract Low levels of HIV-1 transmitted drug resistance (TDR) have previously been reported from many parts of sub-Saharan Africa (sSA). However, recent data, mostly from urban settings, suggest an increase in the prevalence of HIV-1 TDR. Our objective was to determine the prevalence of TDR mutations among HIV-1-infected, antiretroviral (ARV)-naive adults enrolling for care in a rural HIV clinic in Kenya. Two cross-sectional studies were carried out between July 2008 and June 2010. Plasma samples from ARV-naive adults (>15 years old) at the time of registering for care after HIV diagnosis and before starting ARVs were used. A portion of the pol subgenomic region of the virus containing the protease and part of the reverse transcriptase genes was amplified and sequenced. TDR mutations were identified and interpreted using the Stanford HIV drug resistance database and the WHO list for surveillance of drug resistance strains. Overall, samples from 182 ARV-naive adults [mean age (95% CI): 34.9 (33.3-36.4) years] were successfully amplified and sequenced. Two TDR mutations to nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors [n=1 (T215D)] and protease inhibitors [n=1 (M46L)] were identified, giving an overall TDR prevalence of 1.1% (95% CI: 0.1-3.9). Despite reports of an increase in the prevalence of HIV-1 TDR in some urban settings in sSA, we report a prevalence of HIV-1 TDR of less than 5% at a rural HIV clinic in coastal Kenya. Continued broader surveillance is needed to monitor the extent of TDR in sSA.
AIDS research and human retroviruses 08/2012; · 2.18 Impact Factor
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Clare Webb,
Mwanajuma Ngama,
Anthony Ngatia,
Mohammed Shebbe,
Susan Morpeth,
Salim Mwarumba,
Ann Bett,
D James Nokes,
Anna C Seale,
Sidi Kazungu,
Patrick Munywoki,
Laura L Hammitt,
J Anthony G Scott, James A Berkley
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ABSTRACT: Pneumonia is the leading cause of childhood mortality worldwide. The World Health Organization recommends presumptive treatment based on clinical syndromes. Recent studies raise concerns over the frequency of treatment failure in Africa.
We applied a definition of treatment failure to data prospectively collected from children who were 2-59 months of age with severe, or very severe, pneumonia admitted to Kilifi District Hospital, Kenya, from May 2007 through May 2008 and treated using World Health Organization guidelines. The primary outcome was treatment failure at 48 hours.
Of 568 children, median age 11 months, 165 (29%) had very severe pneumonia, 30 (5.3%) a positive HIV test and 62 (11%) severe malnutrition. One hundred eleven (20%; 95% confidence interval: 17-23%) children failed treatment at 48 hours and 34 (6.0%) died; 22 (65%) deaths occurred before 48 hours. Of 353 children with severe pneumonia, without HIV or severe malnutrition, 42 (12%) failed to respond at 48 hours, 15 (4.3%) failed at 5 days and 1 child (0.3%) died. Among 215 children with either severe pneumonia complicated by HIV or severe malnutrition, or very severe pneumonia, 69 (32%) failed to treatment at 48 hours, 47 (22%) failed at 5 days and 33 (16%) died. Treatment failure at 48 hours was associated with shock, bacteremia, very severe pneumonia, oxygen saturation in hemoglobin <95%, severe malnutrition, HIV and age <1 year in multivariable models.
In this setting, few children with uncomplicated severe pneumonia fail treatment or die under current guidelines. Deaths mainly occurred early and may be reduced by improving prevention, prehospital care and treatment of sepsis.
The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 06/2012; 31(9):e152-7. · 3.58 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Objective To assess the inter-observer variability and accuracy of Mid Upper Arm Circumference (MUAC) and weight-for-length Z score (WFLz) among infants aged <6 months performed by community health workers (CHWs) in Kilifi District, Kenya. Methods A cross-sectional repeatability study estimated inter-observer variation and accuracy of measurements initially undertaken by an expert anthropometrist, nurses and public health technicians. Then, after training, 18 CHWs (three at each of six sites) repeatedly measured MUAC, weight and length of infants aged <6 months. Intra-class correlations (ICCs) and the Pitman's statistic were calculated. Results Among CHWs, ICCs pooled across the six sites (924 infants) were 0.96 (95% CI 0.95-0.96) for MUAC and 0.71 (95% CI 0.68-0.74) for WFLz. MUAC measures by CHWs differed little from their trainers: the mean difference in MUAC was 0.65 mm (95% CI 0.023-1.07), with no significant difference in variance (P = 0.075). Conclusion Mid Upper Arm Circumference is more reliably measured by CHWs than WFLz among infants aged <6 months. Further work is needed to define cut-off values based on MUAC's ability to predict mortality among younger infants.
Tropical Medicine & International Health 02/2012; 17(5):622-9. · 2.80 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: To determine the rate and predictors of early loss to follow-up (LTFU) for recently diagnosed HIV-infected, antiretroviral therapy (ART)-ineligible adults in rural Kenya.
Prospective cohort study. Clients registering for HIV care between July 2008 and August 2009 were followed up for 6 months. Baseline data were used to assess predictors of pre-ART LTFU (not returning for care within 2 months of a scheduled appointment), LTFU before the second visit and LTFU after the second visit. Logistic regression was used to determine factors associated with LTFU before the second visit, while Cox regression was used to assess predictors of time to LTFU and LTFU after the second visit.
Of 530 eligible clients, 178 (33.6%) were LTFU from pre-ART care (11.1/100 person-months). Of these, 96 (53.9%) were LTFU before the second visit. Distance (>5 km vs. <1 km: adjusted hazard ratio 2.6 [1.9-3.7], P < 0.01) and marital status (married vs. single: 0.5 [0.3-0.6], P < 0.01) independently predicted pre-ART LTFU. Distance and marital status were independently associated with LTFU before the second visit, while distance, education status and seasonality showed weak evidence of predicting LTFU after the second visit. HIV disease severity did not predict pre-ART LTFU.
A third of recently diagnosed HIV-infected, ART-ineligible clients were LTFU within 6 months of registration. Predictors of LTFU among ART-ineligible clients are different from those among clients on ART. These findings warrant consideration of an enhanced pre-ART care package aimed at improving retention and timely ART initiation.
Tropical Medicine & International Health 01/2012; 17(1):82-93. · 2.80 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Severe acute malnutrition (SAM) accounts for two million deaths worldwide annually. In those hospitalised with SAM, concomitant infections and diarrhoea are frequent complications resulting in adverse outcome. We examined the clinical and laboratory features on admission and outcome of children with SAM and diarrhoea at a Kenyan district hospital.
A 4-year prospective descriptive study involving 1,206 children aged 6 months to 12 years, hospitalized with SAM and managed in accordance with WHO guidelines. Data on clinical features, haematological, biochemical and microbiological findings for children with diarrhoea (≥ 3 watery stools/day) were systematically collected and analyzed to identify risk factors associated with poor outcome.
At admission 592 children (49%) had diarrhoea of which 122 (21%) died compared to 72/614 (12%) deaths in those without diarrhoea at admission (Χ(2) = 17.6 p<0.001). A further 187 (16%) children developed diarrhoea after 48 hours of admission and 33 died (18%). Any diarrhoea during admission resulted in a significantly higher mortality 161/852 (19%) than those uncomplicated by diarrhoea 33/351 (9%) (Χ(2) = 16.6 p<0.001). Features associated with a fatal outcome in children presenting with diarrhoea included bacteraemia, hyponatraemia, low mid-upper arm circumference <10 cm, hypoxia, hypokalaemia and oedema. Bacteraemia had the highest risk of death (adjusted OR 6.1; 95% C.I 2.3, 16.3 p<0.001); and complicated 24 (20%) of fatalities. Positive HIV antibody status was more frequent in cases with diarrhoea at admission (23%) than those without (15%, Χ(2) = 12.0 p = 0.001) but did not increase the risk of death in diarrhoea cases.
Children with SAM complicated by diarrhoea had a higher risk of death than those who did not have diarrhoea during their hospital stay. Further operational and clinical research is needed to reduce mortality in children with SAM in the given setting.
PLoS ONE 01/2012; 7(6):e38321. · 4.09 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: To determine the diagnostic value of visible severe wasting in identifying severe acute malnutrition at two public hospitals in Kenya.
This was a cross-sectional study of children aged 6 to 59.9 months admitted to one rural and one urban hospital. On admission, mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC), weight and height were measured and the presence of visible severe wasting was assessed. The diagnostic performance of visible severe wasting was evaluated against anthropometric criteria.
Of 11,166 children admitted, 563 (5%) had kwashiorkor and 1406 (12.5%) were severely wasted (MUAC < 11.5 cm). The combined sensitivity and specificity of visible severe wasting at the two hospitals, as assessed against a MUAC < 11.5 cm, were 54% (95% confidence interval, CI: 51-56) and 96% (95% CI: 96-97), respectively; at one hospital, its sensitivity and specificity against a weight-for-height z-score below -3 were 44.7% (95% CI: 42-48) and 96.5% (95% CI: 96-97), respectively. Severely wasted children who were correctly identified by visible severe wasting were consistently older, more severely wasted, more often having kwashiorkor, more often positive to the human immunodeficiency virus, ill for a longer period and at greater risk of death. Visible severe wasting had lower sensitivity for determining the risk of death than the anthropometric measures. There was no evidence to support measuring both MUAC and weight-for-height z-score.
Visible severe wasting failed to detect approximately half of the children admitted to hospital with severe acute malnutrition diagnosed anthropometrically. Routine screening by MUAC is quick, simple and inexpensive and should be part of the standard assessment of all paediatric hospital admissions in the study setting.
Bulletin of the World Health Organisation 12/2011; 89(12):900-6. · 4.64 Impact Factor
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Alexander M Aiken,
Neema Mturi,
Patricia Njuguna,
Shebe Mohammed, James A Berkley,
Isaiah Mwangi,
Salim Mwarumba,
Barnes S Kitsao,
Brett S Lowe,
Susan C Morpeth,
Andrew J Hall,
Iqbal Khandawalla,
J Anthony G Scott
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ABSTRACT: In sub-Saharan Africa, community-acquired bacteraemia is an important cause of illness and death in children. Our aim was to establish the magnitude and causes of hospital-acquired (nosocomial) bacteraemia in African children.
We reviewed prospectively collected surveillance data of 33,188 admissions to Kilifi District Hospital, Kenya, between April 16, 2002, and Sept 30, 2009. We defined bacteraemia as nosocomial if it occurred 48 h or more after admission. We estimated the per-admission risk, daily rate, effect on mortality, and microbial cause of nosocomial bacteraemia and analysed risk factors by multivariable Cox regression. The effect on morbidity was measured as the increase in hospital stay by comparison with time-matched patients without bacteraemia.
The overall risk of nosocomial bacteraemia during this period was 5·9/1000 admissions (95% CI 5·2-6·9) but we recorded an underlying rise in risk of 27% per year. The incidence was 1·0/1000 days in hospital (0·87-1·14), which is about 40 times higher than that of community-acquired bacteraemia in the same region. Mortality in patients with nosocomial bacteraemia was 53%, compared with 24% in community-acquired bacteraemia and 6% in patients without bacteraemia. In survivors, nosocomial bacteraemia lengthened hospital stay by 10·1 days (3·0-17·2). Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Acinetobacter spp, group D streptococci, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa accounted for three-quarters of nosocomial infections. Nosocomial bacteraemia was significantly associated with severe malnutrition (hazard ratio 2·52, 95% CI 1·79-3·57) and blood transfusion in children without severe anaemia (4·99; 3·39-7·37).
Our findings show that although nosocomial bacteraemia is rare, it has serious effects on morbidity and mortality, and the microbiological causes are distinct from those of community-acquired bacteraemia. Nosocomial infections are largely unrecognised or undocumented as a health risk in low-income countries, but they are likely to become public health priorities as awareness of their occurrence increases and as other prominent childhood diseases are progressively controlled.
Wellcome Trust.
The Lancet 11/2011; 378(9808):2021-7. · 38.28 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Meningitis is notoriously difficult to diagnose in infancy because its clinical features are non-specific. World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines suggest several indicative signs, based on limited data. We aimed to identify indicators of bacterial meningitis in young infants in Kenya, and compared their performance to the WHO guidelines. We also examined the feasibility of developing a scoring system for meningitis.
We studied all admissions aged < 60 days to Kilifi District Hospital, 2001 through 2005. We evaluated clinical indicators against microbiological findings using likelihood ratios. We prospectively validated our findings 2006 through 2007.
We studied 2,411 and 1,512 young infants during the derivation and validation periods respectively. During derivation, 31/1,031 (3.0%) neonates aged < 7 days and 67/1,380 (4.8%) young infants aged 7-59 days (p < 0.001) had meningitis. 90% of cases could be diagnosed macroscopically (turbidity) or by microscopic leukocyte counting. Independent indicators of meningitis were: fever, convulsions, irritability, bulging fontanel and temperature ≥ 39°C. Areas under the receiver operating characteristic curve in the validation period were 0.62 [95%CI: 0.49-0.75] age < 7 days and 0.76 [95%CI: 0.68-0.85] thereafter (P = 0.07), and using the WHO signs, 0.50 [95%CI 0.35-0.65] age < 7 days and 0.82 [95%CI: 0.75-0.89] thereafter (P = 0.0001). The number needed to LP to identify one case was 21 [95%CI: 15-35] for our signs, and 28 [95%CI: 18-61] for WHO signs. With a scoring system, a cut-off of ≥ 1 sign offered the best compromise on sensitivity and specificity.
Simple clinical signs at admission identify two thirds of meningitis cases in neonates and young infants. Lumbar puncture is essential to diagnosis and avoidance of unnecessary treatment, and is worthwhile without CSF biochemistry or bacterial culture. The signs of Meningitis suggested by the WHO perform poorly in the first week of life. A scoring system for meningitis in this age group is not helpful.
BMC Infectious Diseases 11/2011; 11:301. · 3.12 Impact Factor
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Jennifer C Moïsi,
Hellen Gatakaa, James A Berkley,
Kathryn Maitland,
Neema Mturi,
Charles R Newton,
Patricia Njuguna,
James Nokes,
John Ojal,
Evasius Bauni,
Benjamin Tsofa,
Norbert Peshu,
Kevin Marsh,
Thomas N Williams,
J Anthony G Scott
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ABSTRACT: To explore excess paediatric mortality after discharge from Kilifi District Hospital, Kenya, and its duration and risk factors.
Hospital and demographic data were used to describe post-discharge mortality and survival probability in children aged < 15 years, by age group and clinical syndrome. Cox regression models were developed to identify risk factors.
In 2004-2008, approximately 111,000 children were followed for 555,000 person-years. We analysed 14,971 discharges and 535 deaths occurring within 365 days of discharge. Mortality was higher in the post-discharge cohort than in the community cohort (age-adjusted rate ratio, RR: 7.7; 95% confidence interval, CI: 6.6-8.9) and declined little over time. An increased post-discharge mortality hazard was found in children aged < 5 years with the following: weight-for-age Z score < -4 (hazard ratio, HR: 6.5); weight-for-age Z score > -4 but < -3 (HR: 3.4); hypoxia (HR: 2.3); bacteraemia (HR: 1.8); hepatomegaly (HR: 2.3); jaundice (HR: 1.8); hospital stay > 13 days (HR: 1.8). Older age was protective (reference < 1 month): 6-23 months, HR: 0.8; 2-4 years, HR: 0.6. Children with at least one risk factor accounted for 545 (33%) of the 1655 annual discharges and for 39 (47%) of the 83 discharge-associated deaths.
Hospital admission selects vulnerable children with a sustained increased risk of dying. The risk factors identified provide an empiric basis for effective outpatient follow-up.
Bulletin of the World Health Organisation 10/2011; 89(10):725-32, 732A. · 4.64 Impact Factor
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J Anthony G Scott, James A Berkley,
Isaiah Mwangi,
Lucy Ochola,
Sophie Uyoga,
Alexander Macharia,
Carolyne Ndila,
Brett S Lowe,
Salim Mwarumba,
Evasius Bauni,
Kevin Marsh,
Thomas N Williams
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ABSTRACT: Many investigators have suggested that malaria infection predisposes individuals to bacteraemia. We tested this hypothesis with mendelian randomisation studies of children with the malaria-protective phenotype of sickle-cell trait (HbAS).
This study was done in a defined area around Kilifi District Hospital, Kilifi, Kenya. We did a matched case-control study to identify risk factors for invasive bacterial disease, in which cases were children aged 3 months to 13 years who were admitted to hospital with bacteraemia between Sept 16, 1999, and July 31, 2002. We aimed to match two controls, by age, sex, location, and time of recruitment, for every case. We then did a longitudinal case-control study to assess the relation between HbAS and invasive bacterial disease as malaria incidence decreased. Cases were children aged 0-13 years who were admitted to hospital with bacteraemia between Jan 1, 1999, and Dec 31, 2007. Controls were born in the study area between Jan 1, 2006, and June 23, 2009. Finally, we modelled the annual incidence of bacteraemia against the community prevalence of malaria during 9 years with Poisson regression.
In the matched case-control study, we recruited 292 cases-we recruited two controls for 236, and one for the remaining 56. Sickle-cell disease, HIV, leucocyte haemozoin pigment, and undernutrition were positively associated with bacteraemia and HbAS was strongly negatively associated with bacteraemia (odds ratio 0·36; 95% CI 0·20-0·65). In the longitudinal case-control study, we assessed data from 1454 cases and 10,749 controls. During the study period, the incidence of admission to hospital with malaria per 1000 child-years decreased from 28·5 to 3·45, with a reduction in protection afforded by HbAS against bacteraemia occurring in parallel (p=0·0008). The incidence of hospital admissions for bacteraemia per 1000 child-years also decreased from 2·59 to 1·45. The bacteraemia incidence rate ratio associated with malaria parasitaemia was 6·69 (95% CI 1·31-34·3) and, at a community parasite prevalence of 29% in 1999, 62% (8·2-91) of bacteraemia cases were attributable to malaria.
Malaria infection strongly predisposes individuals to bacteraemia and can account for more than half of all cases of bacteraemia in malaria-endemic areas. Interventions to control malaria will have a major additional benefit by reducing the burden of invasive bacterial disease.
Wellcome Trust.
The Lancet 09/2011; 378(9799):1316-23. · 38.28 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The extent of HIV-1 diversity was examined among patients attending a rural district hospital in a coastal area of Kenya. The pol gene was sequenced in samples from 153 patients. Subtypes were designated using the REGA, SCUEAL, and jpHMM programs. The most common subtype was A1, followed by C and D; A2 and G were also detected. However, a large proportion of the samples was found to be recombinants, which clustered within the pure subtype branches. Phylogeographic analysis of Kilifi sequences compared with those from other regions of Africa showed that while many sequences were closely related to sequences from Kenya, others were most closely related to known sequences from other parts of Africa, including West Africa. Overall, these data indicate that there have been multiple introductions of HIV-1 into this small rural town and surroundings with ongoing diversity being generated by recombination.
AIDS research and human retroviruses 07/2011; 28(2):220-4. · 2.18 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Falciparum malaria is an important cause of acute symptomatic seizures in children admitted to hospitals in sub-Saharan Africa, and these seizures are associated with neurological disabilities and epilepsy. However, it is difficult to determine the proportion of seizures attributable to malaria in endemic areas since a significant proportion of asymptomatic children have malaria parasitaemia. We studied children aged 0-13 years who had been admitted with a history of seizures to a rural Kenyan hospital between 2002 and 2008. We examined the changes in the incidence of seizures with the reduction of malaria. Logistic regression was used to model malaria-attributable fractions for seizures (the proportion of seizures caused by malaria) to determine if the observed decrease in acute symptomatic seizures was a measure of seizures that are attributable to malaria. The overall incidence of acute symptomatic seizures over the period was 651/100,000/year (95% confidence interval 632-670) and it was 400/100,000/year (95% confidence interval 385-415) for acute complex symptomatic seizures (convulsive status epilepticus, repetitive or focal) and 163/100,000/year (95% confidence interval 154-173) for febrile seizures. From 2002 to 2008, the incidence of all acute symptomatic seizures decreased by 809/100,000/year (69.2%) with 93.1% of this decrease in malaria-associated seizures. The decrease in the incidence of acute complex symptomatic seizures during the period was 111/100,000/year (57.2%) for convulsive status epilepticus, 440/100,000/year (73.7%) for repetitive seizures and 153/100,000/year (80.5%) for focal seizures. The adjusted malaria-attributable fractions for seizures with parasitaemia were 92.9% (95% confidence interval 90.4-95.1%) for all acute symptomatic seizures, 92.9% (95% confidence interval 89.4-95.5%) for convulsive status epilepticus, 93.6% (95% confidence interval 90.9-95.9%) for repetitive seizures and 91.8% (95% confidence interval 85.6-95.5%) for focal seizures. The adjusted malaria-attributable fractions for seizures in children above 6 months of age decreased with age. The observed decrease in all acute symptomatic seizures (809/100 000/year) was similar to the predicted decline (794/100,000/year) estimated by malaria-attributable fractions at the beginning of the study. In endemic areas, falciparum malaria is the most common cause of seizures and the risk for seizures in malaria decreases with age. The reduction in malaria has decreased the burden of seizures that are attributable to malaria and this could lead to reduced neurological disabilities and epilepsy in the area.
Brain 05/2011; 134(Pt 5):1519-28. · 9.46 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: A cohort design was used to determine uptake and drop out of 213 HIV-exposed infants eligible for Early Infant Diagnosis (EID) of HIV. To explore service providers and care givers knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of the EID process, observations and in-depth interviews were conducted. 145 (68%) infants enrolled after 2 months of age. 139 (65%) dropped out before follow up to 18 months old. 60 (43%) drop outs occurred within 2 months of enrolment. Maternal factors associated with infant drop out were maternal loss to follow up (48 [68%] vs. 8 [20%], P < 0.001) and younger maternal age (27.2 vs. 30.1 years, P = 0.033). Service providers and caregivers had inadequate training, knowledge and understanding of EID. Poverty and lack of social support were challenges in accessing EID services. EID should be more closely aligned within PMTCT services, integrated with routine mother and child health (MCH) activities and its implementation more closely monitored.
AIDS and Behavior 01/2011; 16(1):5-12. · 3.49 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Malaria remains a significant burden in sub-Saharan Africa. However, data on burden of congenital and neonatal malaria is scarce and contradictory, with some recent studies reporting a high burden. Using prospectively collected data on neonatal admissions to a rural district hospital in a region of stable malaria endemicity in Kenya, the prevalence of congenital and neonatal malaria was described.
From 1st January 2002 to 31st December 2009, admission and discharge information on all neonates admitted to Kilifi District Hospital was collected. At admission, blood was also drawn for routine investigations, which included a full blood count, blood culture and blood slide for malaria parasites.
Of the 5,114 neonates admitted during the eight-year surveillance period, blood slide for malaria parasites was performed in 4,790 (93.7%). 18 (0.35%) neonates with Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasitaemia, of whom 11 were admitted within the first week of life and thus classified as congenital parasitaemia, were identified. 7/18 (39%) had fever. Parasite densities were low, ≤50 per μl in 14 cases. The presence of parasitaemia was associated with low haemoglobin (Hb) of <10 g/dl (χ² 10.9 P = 0.001). The case fatality rate of those with and without parasitaemia was similar. Plasmodium falciparum parasitaemia was identified as the cause of symptoms in four neonates.
Congenital and neonatal malaria are rare in this malaria endemic region. Performing a blood slide for malaria parasites among sick neonates in malaria endemic regions is advisable. This study does not support routine treatment with anti-malarial drugs among admitted neonates with or without fever even in a malaria endemic region.
Malaria Journal 11/2010; 9:313. · 3.19 Impact Factor
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Trends in Parasitology 10/2010; 26(10):465-6. · 5.14 Impact Factor
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Michael K Mwaniki,
Hellen W Gatakaa,
Florence N Mturi,
Charles R Chesaro,
Jane M Chuma,
Norbert M Peshu,
Linda Mason,
Piet Kager,
Kevin Marsh,
Mike English, James A Berkley,
Charles R Newton
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ABSTRACT: Most of the global neonatal deaths occur in developing nations, mostly in rural homes. Many of the newborns who receive formal medical care are treated in rural district hospitals and other peripheral health centres. However there are no published studies demonstrating trends in neonatal admissions and outcome in rural health care facilities in resource poor regions. Such information is critical in planning public health interventions. In this study we therefore aimed at describing the pattern of neonatal admissions to a Kenyan rural district hospital and their outcome over a 19 year period, examining clinical indicators of inpatient neonatal mortality and also trends in utilization of a rural hospital for deliveries.
Prospectively collected data on neonates is compared to non-neonatal paediatric (≤ 5 years old) admissions and deliveries' in the maternity unit at Kilifi District Hospital from January 1(st) 1990 up to December 31(st) 2008, to document the pattern of neonatal admissions, deliveries and changes in inpatient deaths. Trends were examined using time series models with likelihood ratios utilised to identify indicators of inpatient neonatal death.
The proportion of neonatal admissions of the total paediatric ≤ 5 years admissions significantly increased from 11% in 1990 to 20% by 2008 (trend 0.83 (95% confidence interval 0.45-1.21). Most of the increase in burden was from neonates born in hospital and very young neonates aged < 7 days. Hospital deliveries also increased significantly. Clinical diagnoses of neonatal sepsis, prematurity, neonatal jaundice, neonatal encephalopathy, tetanus and neonatal meningitis accounted for over 75% of the inpatient neonatal admissions. Inpatient case fatality for all ≤ 5 years declined significantly over the 19 years. However, neonatal deaths comprised 33% of all inpatient death among children aged ≤ 5 years in 1990, this increased to 55% by 2008. Tetanus 256/390 (67%), prematurity 554/1,280(43%) and neonatal encephalopathy 253/778(33%) had the highest case fatality. A combination of six indicators: irregular respiration, oxygen saturation of <90%, pallor, neck stiffness, weight < 1.5 kg, and abnormally elevated blood glucose > 7 mmol/l predicted inpatient neonatal death with a sensitivity of 81% and a specificity of 68%.
There is clear evidence of increasing burden in neonatal admissions at a rural district hospital in contrast to reducing numbers of non-neonatal paediatrics' admissions aged ≤ 5 years. Though the inpatient case fatality for all admissions aged ≤ 5 years declined significantly, neonates now comprise close to 60% of all inpatient deaths. Simple indicators may identify neonates at risk of death.
BMC Public Health 10/2010; 10:591. · 2.00 Impact Factor
