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ABSTRACT: Altricial mammals use olfaction long before the olfactory bulb has reached its anatomically mature state. Indeed, while audition and vision are still not functional, the olfactory system of newborn animals can clearly process distinct odorant molecules. Although several previous studies have emphasized the important role that olfaction plays in early critical functions, it has been difficult to develop a sensitive and reliable test to precisely quantify olfactory ability in pups. One difficulty in determining early sensory capabilities is the rather limited behavioral repertory of neonates. The present study examines the use of ultrasonic vocalizations emitted by isolated rodent pups as a potential index of odor detection in newborn mice. As early as postnatal day 2, mice reliably decrease their emission of ultrasonic calls in response to odor exposure to the bedding of adult male mice but not in response to clean bedding odors or to non-social odorant molecules. A toxin known to damage the olfactory epithelium in adult, the 3-methylindole, impairs the ultrasonic call responses triggered by exposure to male bedding, thus confirming the efficiency of this olfactotoxin on mice pups. The administration of 3-methylindole severely reduced the life expectancy of the majority of subjects. This result is discussed according to the critical role of olfaction in nipple-seeking behavior in mouse pups.
Behavioural Processes 02/2005; 68(1):13-23. · 1.65 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The dopamine D(2) receptor exists as a long (D(2a)) and a short (D(2b)) isoform generated by alternative splicing of the corresponding transcript, which modifies the length of the third cytoplasmic loop implicated in heterotrimeric G-protein-coupling. Anatomical data suggested that this segment regulates the intracellular traffic and localization of the receptor. To directly address this question we used a combination of tagging procedures and immunocytochemical techniques to detect each of the two D(2) receptor isoforms. Surprisingly, most of the newly synthesized receptors accumulate in large intracellular compartments, the plasma membrane being only weakly labeled, without significant difference between the two receptor isoforms. Double labeling experiments showed that this localization corresponded neither to endosomal compartments nor to the Golgi apparatus. The D(2) receptor is mostly retained in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the long isoform more efficiently than the short one. It is accompanied by a striking vacuolization of the ER, roughly proportional to the expression levels of the two receptor isoforms. This phenomenon is partly overcome by treatment with pertussis toxin. In addition, an intrinsic activity of the D(2) receptor isoforms is revealed by [(35)S]-GTP gamma S binding and cAMP assay, which suggested that expression of weakly but constitutively active D(2) receptors promotes activation of heterotrimeric G protein inside the secretory pathway. This mechanism may participate in the regulation of the cellular traffic of the D(2) receptors isoforms.
Journal of Cell Science 11/2001; 114(Pt 19):3517-27. · 6.11 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: E3, E4, and E3-4 are naturally occurring estrogen receptor (ER) isoforms, generated through differential splicing of the ERalpha primary transcript and abundantly expressed in embryonic rat pituitary. Studies in COS cells transfected with full-length ERalpha or its three splice variants fused to green fluorescent protein (GFP), revealed a different subcellular localization for each isoform. In the absence of estradiol, full-length ERalpha-GFP was predominantly nuclear, and E3-GFP and E4-GFP were present both in cytoplasm and nucleus, whereas E3-4-GFP was predominantly cytoplasmic. Upon hormone treatment, a dramatic redistribution of full-length ERalpha-GFP and E3-GFP, from a diffuse to punctate pattern, occurred within the nucleus. In contrast, the distribution of E4-GFP and E3-4-GFP was unaffected. Nuclear fractionation studies showed that full-length ER-alpha and E3 displayed the same hormone-induced ability to tether to nuclear matrix, whereas nuclear E4 appeared to remain loosely associated to functional nuclear constituents. When cotransfected with an estrogen-inducible reporter plasmid (VIT-TK-CAT) in ER-negative (CHO k1) and ER-positive pituitary (GH4 C1) cells, E3-4 exhibited a very weak estrogen-dependent transactivation activity, whereas E3 had an inhibitory effect on full-length ER action. Conversely, E4 displayed estrogen-independent transcriptional activity in ER-negative cells, and in ER-positive cells, enhanced the estrogen-induced gene expression as efficiently as full-length ERalpha. In a gel mobility shift assay, phosphorylated E4 was able to form a specific complex with a consensus ERE, while E3 and E3-4 never did bind by themselves. The observed inhibitory action of E3 on estrogen-dependent transcription would rather involve protein-protein interactions such as formation of heterodimers with full-length ERalpha, as suggested by immunoprecipitation followed by Western blotting. These data suggest that E3 and E4 may play a physiologically relevant role as negative or constitutively positive modulators of transcription, in the developing rat pituitary.
Molecular Endocrinology 07/2001; 15(6):894-908. · 4.54 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Within the brain, HIV-1 targets the microglia and astrocytes. Previous studies have reported that viral entry into astrocytes is independent of CD4, in contrast to microglia. We aimed to determine whether chemokine receptors play a role in mediating CD4-independent HIV-1 entry into astrocytes. We found that embryonic astrocytes and microglial cells express CCR5, CCR3, and CXCR4 transcripts. Intracellular calcium levels in astrocytes were found to increase following application of RANTES, MIP-1beta (CCR5-agonist), SDF-1alpha (CXCR4-agonist), but not eotaxin (CCR3-agonist). In microglial cells, eotaxin was also able to modulate internal calcium homeostasis. CD4 was not present at the cell surface of purified astrocytes but CD4 mRNA could be detected by RT-PCR. Neither HIV-1(9533) (R5 isolate) nor HIV-1(LAI) (X4 isolate) penetrated into purified astrocytes. In contrast, mixed CNS cell cultures were infected by HIV-1(9533) and this was inhibited by anti-CD4 mAb in 4/4 tested cultures and by anti-CCR5 mAb in 2/4. Thus, the HIV-1 R5 strain requires CD4 to penetrate into brain cells, suggesting that CCR5 cannot be used as the primary receptor for M-tropic HIV-1 strains in astrocytes. Moreover, inconstant inhibition of HIV-1 entry by anti-CCR5 mAb supports the existence of alternative coreceptors for penetration of M-tropic isolates into brain cells.
Glia 06/2001; 34(3):165-77. · 4.82 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Disruption of both alleles of the prion protein gene, Prnp, has been shown repeatedly to abolish the susceptibility of mice to developing prion diseases. However, conflicting results have been obtained from phenotypic analyses of prion protein (PrP)-deficient (Prnp0/0) mice lines. To explore the possible neurophysiological properties associated with expression or absence of the normal isoform of the cellular prion protein (PrPC), we used conventional in vitro extracellular field potential recordings in the hippocampal CA1 area of mice from two independently-derived Prnp0/0 strains. Basal synaptic transmission and a short-term form of synaptic plasticity were analysed in this study. Results were compared with animals carrying a wild-type mouse PrP transgene to investigate whether PrP expression levels influence glutamatergic synaptic transmission in the hippocampus. There was a clear correlation between excitatory synaptic transmission and PrP expression; i.e. the range of synaptic responses increased with the level of PrPC expression. On the other hand, the probability of transmitter release, as assessed by paired-pulse facilitation, appeared unchanged. Interestingly, whereas the overall range for synaptic responses was still greater in older mice over-expressing PrPC, this effect in these animals appeared to be due to better recruitment of fibres rather than facilitation of synaptic transmission per se. Taken together, these data are strong evidence for a functional role for PrPC in modulating synaptic transmission.
Pflügers Archiv - European Journal of Physiology 06/2001; 442(2):223-9. · 4.46 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Neuronal synchronization in the olfactory bulb has been proposed to arise from a diffuse action of glutamate released from mitral cells (MC, olfactory bulb relay neurons). According to this hypothesis, glutamate spills over from dendrodendritic synapses formed between MC and granule cells (GC, olfactory bulb interneurons) to activate neighboring MC. The excitation of MC is balanced by a strong inhibition from GC. Here we show that MC excitation is caused by glutamate released from bulbar interneurons located in the GC layer. These reciprocal synapses depend on an unusual, 2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid-resistant, N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor. This type of feedback excitation onto relay neurons may strengthen the original sensory input signal and further extend the function of the dendritic microcircuit within the main olfactory bulb.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 06/2001; 98(11):6441-6. · 9.68 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: It has been shown recently that in mitral cells of the rat olfactory bulb, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) autoreceptors are activated during mitral cell firing. Here we consider in more details the mechanisms of mitral cell self-excitation and its physiological relevance. We show that both ionotropic NMDA and non-NMDA autoreceptors are activated by glutamate released from primary and secondary dendrites. In contrast to non-NMDA autoreceptors, NMDA autoreceptors are almost exclusively located on secondary dendrites and their activation generates a large and sustained self-excitation. Both intracellularly evoked and miniature NMDA-R mediated synaptic potentials are blocked by intracellular bis-(o-aminophenoxy)-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid (BAPTA) and result from a calcium-dependent release of glutamate. Self-excitation can be produced by a single spike, and trains of spikes result in frequency facilitation. Thus activation of excitatory autoreceptors is a major function of action potentials backpropagating in mitral cell dendrites, which results in an immediate positive feedback counteracting recurrent inhibition and increasing the signal-to-noise ratio of olfactory inputs.
Journal of Neurophysiology 04/2001; 85(3):1275-82. · 3.32 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: In this review, we discuss some of the neural processes involved in the perception of odors which, together with audition and vision, provide essential information for analyzing our surroundings. We shall see how odor detection and learning induce substantial structural and functional changes at the first relay of the olfactory system, i.e., the main olfactory bulb. Among the mechanisms which participate in these modifications are changes in the cell's responses to a transmitter and the persistence of a high level of interneuron neurogenesis within the adult olfactory bulb. Our goal is to present some observations related to these two phenomena that may aid in understanding the neural mechanisms of sensory perception and shed light on the cellular basis of olfactory learning. To this purpose, we summarize the current ideas concerning the molecular mechanisms and organizational strategies used by the olfactory system to transduce, encode, and process information at various levels in the olfactory sensory pathway. Due to space constraints, this review focuses exclusively on the olfactory systems of vertebrates and primarily those of mammals.
Bulletin de l'Académie nationale de médecine 02/2001; 185(4):689-703; discussion 703-5. · 0.25 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Polysialic acid-neural cell adhesion molecule (PSA-NCAM) expression in the adult nervous system is restricted to regions retaining a capacity for morphological plasticity. For the female rat hypothalamoneurohypophysial system (HNS), we have previously shown that lactation induces a dramatic decrease in PSA-NCAM, while leaving the level of total NCAM protein unchanged. Here, we wanted to elucidate the molecular mechanisms leading to a downregulation of PSA, thereby stabilizing newly established synapses and neurohemal contacts that accompany the increased activity of oxytocinergic neurons. First, we show that the overall specific activity of polysialyltransferases present in tissue extracts from supraoptic nuclei decreases by approximately 50% during lactation. So far, two polysialyltransferase enzymes, STX and PST, have been characterized for their capacity to transfer PSA onto NCAM in vitro. Using a competitive RT-PCR on RNA extracts from the HNS, we demonstrate furthermore a significant decrease in the expression levels of both STX and PST mRNAs in lactating versus virgin animals. Interestingly, this downregulation of NCAM polysialylation is not correlated with the post-transcriptional regulation of variable alternative spliced exon splicing, in contrast to neural development. The control of polysialylation via a regulation of both enzyme activity and expression underlines the important role of this post-translational modification of NCAM in morphofunctional plasticity in adult brain.
Journal of Neuroscience 05/2000; 20(7):2551-7. · 7.11 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: In adult rodents, neurons are continually generated in the subventricular zone of the forebrain, from where they migrate tangentially toward the olfactory bulb, the only known target for these neuronal precursors. Within the main olfactory bulb, they ascend radially into the granule and periglomerular cell layers, where they differentiate mainly into local interneurons. The functional consequences of this permanent generation and integration of new neurons into existing circuits are unknown. To address this question, we used neural cell adhesion molecule-deficient mice that have documented deficits in the migration of olfactory-bulb neuron precursors, leading to about 40% size reduction of this structure. Our anatomical study reveals that this reduction is restricted to the granule cell layer, a structure that contains exclusively gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic interneurons. Furthermore, mutant mice were subjected to experiments designed to examine the behavioral consequences of such anatomical alteration. We found that the specific reduction in the newly generated interneuron population resulted in an impairment of discrimination between odors. In contrast, both the detection thresholds for odors and short-term olfactory memory were unaltered, demonstrating that a critical number of bulbar granule cells is crucial only for odor discrimination but not for general olfactory functions.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 03/2000; 97(4):1823-8. · 9.68 Impact Factor
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Methods in Enzymology 02/2000; 313:143-56. · 2.04 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Dopamine is a widespread neurotransmitter which exerts numerous neuromodulatory actions in the vertebrate central nervous system. This pleiotropic activity relies on the organisation of dopamine-synthesizing neuronal pathways and on a multiplicity of specific membrane receptors. A comparative approach has been undertaken to gain clues on the genetic events which took place during evolution to devise the dopamine systems of modern vertebrates. The localisation and phenotype of dopamine-synthesizing neurones is determined by different gene networks in each of the dopaminergic nuclei. However, despite this amazing diversity, the overall organisation of the dopaminergic nuclei is strinkingly conserved in the main vertebrates groups. In sharp contrast, the number of dopamine receptors subtypes has been multiplied by two major steps of gene duplications during vertebrates evolution. The first one occurred in the lineage leading to agnathans, whereas the second was concomitant to the emergence of cartilaginous fish. Accordingly, three subtypes exist in D1 receptor class (D1A, D1B, D1C) in all the jawed vertebrates, with two exceptions: eutherian mammals where only two D1 subtypes are found (D1A, D1B) and archosaurs where a fourth subtype is present (D1D). Comparisons of the pharmacological and biochemical characteristics of the dopamine receptors in vertebrate groups revealed homologous features that define each of the receptor subtypes and that have been fixed after gene duplications. The comparison of the distribution of the D1 receptor transcripts in the brain of teleosts and mammals points to significant conserved or derived expression territories, revealing previously neglected aspects of dopamine physiology in vertebrates.
Journal de la Société de Biologie 02/2000; 194(2):87-93.
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ABSTRACT: Rhythmic patterns of neuronal activity have been found at multiple levels of various sensory systems. In the olfactory bulb or the antennal lobe, oscillatory activity exhibits a broad range of frequencies and has been proposed to encode sensory information. However, the neural mechanisms underlying these oscillations are unknown. Bulbar oscillations might be an emergent network property arising from neuronal interactions and/or resulting from intrinsic oscillations in individual neurons. Here we show that mitral cells (output neurons of the olfactory bulb) display subthreshold oscillations of their membrane potential. These oscillations are mediated by tetrodotoxin-sensitive sodium currents and range in frequency from 10 to 50 Hz as a function of resting membrane potential. Because the voltage dependency of oscillation frequency was found to be similar to that for action potential generation, we studied how subthreshold oscillations could influence the timing of action potentials elicited by synaptic inputs. Indeed, we found that subthreshold oscillatory activity can trigger the precise occurrence of action potentials generated in response to EPSPs. Furthermore, IPSPs were found to set the phase of subthreshold oscillations and can lead to "rebound" spikes with a constant latency. Because intrinsic oscillations of membrane potential enable very precise temporal control of neuronal firing, we propose that these oscillations provide an effective means to synchronize mitral cell subpopulations during the processing of olfactory information.
Journal of Neuroscience 01/2000; 19(24):10727-37. · 7.11 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Adenosine can influence dopaminergic neurotransmission in the basal ganglia via postsynaptic interaction between adenosine A2A and dopamine D2 receptors. We have used a human neuroblastoma cell line (SH-SY5Y) that was found to express constitutively moderate levels of adenosine A1 and A2A receptors (approximately 100 fmol/mg of protein) to investigate the interactions of A2A/D2 receptors, at a cellular level. After transfection with human D2L receptor cDNA, SH-SY5Y cells expressed between 500 and 1,100 fmol of D2 receptors/mg of protein. In membrane preparations, stimulation of adenosine A2A receptors decreased the affinity of dopamine D2 receptors for dopamine. In intact cells, the calcium concentration elevation induced by KCI treatment was moderate, and dopamine had no effect on either resting intracellular free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) or KCI-induced responses. In contrast, pretreatment with adenosine deaminase for 2 days dramatically increased the elevation of [Ca2+]i evoked by KCI, which then was totally reversed by dopamine. The effects induced by 48-h adenosine inactivation were mimicked by application of adenosine A1 antagonists and could not be further reversed by acute activation of either A1 or A2A receptors. Acute application of the selective A2 receptor agonist CGS-21680 counteracted the D2 receptor-induced [Ca2+]i responses. The present study shows that SH-SY5Y cells are endowed with functional adenosine A2A and A1 receptors and that A2A receptors exert an antagonistic acute effect on dopamine D2 receptor-mediated functions. In contrast, A1 receptors induce a tonic modulatory role on these dopamine functions.
Journal of Neurochemistry 01/2000; 74(1):432-9. · 4.06 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The main olfactory bulb is a critical relay step between the olfactory epithelium and the olfactory cortex. A marked feature of the bulb is its massive innervation by cholinergic inputs from the basal forebrain. In this study, we addressed the functional interaction between cholinergic inputs and intrinsic bulbar circuitry. Determining the roles of acetylcholine (ACh) requires the characterization of cholinergic effects on both neural excitability and synaptic transmission. For this purpose, we used electrophysiological techniques to localize and characterize the diverse roles of ACh in mouse olfactory bulb slices. We found that cholinergic inputs have a surprising number of target receptor populations that are expressed on three different neuronal types in the bulb. Specifically, nicotinic acetylcholine receptors excite both the output neurons of the bulb, i.e., the mitral cells, as well as interneurons located in the periglomerular regions. These nicotine-induced responses in interneurons are short lasting, whereas responses in mitral cells are long lasting. In contrast, muscarinic receptors have an inhibitory effect on the firing rate of interneurons from a deeper layer, granule cells, while at the same time they increase the degree of activity-independent transmitter release from these cells onto mitral cells. Cholinergic signaling thus was found to have multiple and opposing roles in the olfactory bulb. These dual cholinergic effects on mitral cells and interneurons may be important in modulating olfactory bulb output to central structures required for driven behaviors and may be relevant to understanding mechanisms underlying the perturbations of cholinergic inputs to cortex that occur in Alzheimer's disease.
Journal of Neuroscience 12/1999; 19(21):9180-91. · 7.11 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Both observations in humans with disorders of dopaminergic transmission and molecular studies point to an important role for dopamine in olfaction. In this study we found that dopamine receptor activation in the olfactory bulb causes a significant depression of synaptic transmission at the first relay between olfactory receptor neurons and mitral cells. This depression was found to be caused by activation of the D2 subtype of dopamine receptor and was reversible by a specific D2 receptor antagonist. A change in paired-pulse modulation during the depression suggests a presynaptic locus of action. The depression was found to occur independent of synaptic activity. These results provide the first evidence for dopaminergic control of inputs to the main olfactory bulb. The magnitude and locus of dopamine's modulatory capabilities in the bulb suggest important roles for dopamine in odorant processing.
Journal of Neurophysiology 09/1999; 82(2):1082-5. · 3.32 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The expression time course of estrogen receptor alpha (ER alpha) was analyzed by RT-PCR in fetal and newborn rat pituitaries. In addition to the classical ER alpha messenger RNA (mRNA), three shorter transcripts were detected and subsequently cloned. Sequence analysis showed that they corresponded to ER alpha mRNAs lacking exon 3 (which encodes a zinc finger in the DNA-binding domain), exon 4 (which encodes the nuclear localization signal and part of the steroid-binding domain), or both exons 3 and 4. As analyzed by RT-PCR and ribonuclease protection assay, the respective expression levels of the different transcripts varied dramatically during pituitary development; short forms appeared 4 days before full-length ER alpha mRNA. On Western blots from rat pituitaries of different ages, an ER alpha-specific antiserum labeled four protein bands of the expected molecular weights, revealing that all four ER alpha mRNAs are translated in vivo. Immunocytochemistry, using the same antiserum, showed the ER alpha to be present first in the cytosol of intermediate lobe cells (around embryonic day 16). Only 5 days later, nuclear staining became detectable in the anterior lobe. We argue that the observed cytosolic staining will be essentially due to short ER alpha isoforms, which are indeed more abundantly expressed in the intermediate lobe. These data suggest that during pituitary development, the activity of the ER alpha might be specifically regulated by differential splicing of its primary transcript, resulting in a differential subcellular localization of the isoforms.
Endocrinology 07/1999; 140(6):2781-9. · 4.46 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The Raf kinases play an important and specific role in the activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) cascade. Beside its role in the control of proliferation and differentiation, the ERK cascade has also been implicated in neuron-specific functions. In order to gain clues on the function of Raf kinases in the adult central nervous system (CNS), we performed a comparative analysis of the distribution and subcellular localization of the different Raf kinases in rat brain with antibodies specific for the different Raf kinases. We show that B-Raf and Raf-1 proteins are present in most brain areas, whereas A-Raf is not detected. Interestingly, the two Raf proteins have an approximately similar pattern of distribution with a rostro-caudal decreasing gradient of expression. These two kinases are colocalized in neurons but they are differentially located in subcellular compartments. Raf-1 is localized mainly in the cytosolic fraction around the nucleus, whereas B-Raf is widely distributed in the cell bodies and in the neuritic processes. In addition, we demonstrated that numerous B-Raf isoforms are present in the brain. These isoforms have a differential pattern of distribution, some of them being ubiquitously expressed whereas others are localized to specific brain areas. These isoforms also have a clear differential subcellular localization, specially in Triton-insoluble fractions, but also in synaptosomal, membrane and cytosolic compartments. Altogether these results suggest that each Raf protein could have a distinct signalling regulatory function in the brain with regard to its subcellular localization.
European Journal of Neuroscience 07/1999; 11(6):1995-2006. · 3.63 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) are known to be involved in a variety of developmental processes that play key roles in the establishment of synaptic connectivity during embryonic development, but recent evidence implicates the same molecules in synaptic plasticity of the adult. In the present study, we have used neural CAM (NCAM)-deficient mice, which have learning and behavioral deficits, to evaluate NCAM function in the hippocampal mossy fiber system. Morphological studies demonstrated that fasciculation and laminar growth of mossy fibers were strongly affected, leading to innervation of CA3 pyramidal cells at ectopic sites, whereas individual mossy fiber boutons appeared normal. Electrophysiological recordings performed in hippocampal slice preparations revealed that both basal synaptic transmission and two forms of short-term plasticity, i.e., paired-pulse facilitation and frequency facilitation, were normal in mice lacking all forms of NCAM. However, long-term potentiation of glutamatergic excitatory synapses after brief trains of repetitive stimulation was abolished. Taken together, these results strongly suggest that in the hippocampal mossy fiber system, NCAM is essential both for correct axonal growth and synaptogenesis and for long-term changes in synaptic strength.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 11/1998; 95(22):13242-7. · 9.68 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The two isoforms of the D2 dopamine receptor are generated by alternative splicing of the exon 6 of the premessenger RNA (pre-mRNA), changing the length of the third cytoplasmic loop involved in the coupling to G proteins. In the MMQ PRL cell line, sex steroid hormones modulated the proportion of the two D2 receptor isoforms. Under controlled culture conditions, 17beta-estradiol (E2) strongly favored the production of the long isoform of D2 mRNA over the short one, whereas both isoforms were equally abundant when culture medium was hormone depleted. In the presence of progesterone (P), E2 action was inhibited, and equal amounts of each D2 receptor isoform were produced in the cells. Hormone treatments never modified either the total amount of D2 receptor mRNA and D2 receptor binding sites or D2 receptor-mediated inhibition of adenylyl cyclase. Specific antagonists demonstrated that the activity of each hormone depended on their nuclear receptors. Inhibitors of gene transcription or translation also showed that their activity required protein synthesis. The expression of the short D2 receptor isoform was never prominent, even at the single cell level. Analysis of the intron sequence flanking alternative exon 6 showed that only the upstream intron presented two sequence tracts known to be targets for splicing factors. Taken together, these results provide converging evidence for a physiologically relevant mechanism by which sex steroid receptors could regulate the expression of a splicing factor favoring the production of the long dopamine D2 receptor isoform.
Endocrinology 11/1998; 139(10):4213-21. · 4.46 Impact Factor
