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ABSTRACT: Functional electrical stimulation (FES) can improve walking in individuals with mobility impairments. We evaluated accelerometers, force sensitive resistors, segment angles, and segment angular velocities to identify which sensor best determines the activation and deactivation times of the main muscles used during walking. This sensor(s) can be used in the future in conjunction with FES systems to improve walking. Able-bodied subjects walked at various speeds. Threshold levels were set for each sensor that minimized the difference between the times of activating and deactivating the electromyogram (EMG) of six muscles and the times of sensor threshold crossings as a percent of the step cycle. Mobility-impaired subjects walked at their preferred speed with and without FES to correct foot drop. Thresholds were set for these subjects so that sensor signals would cross at times that matched those of able-bodied subjects. Segment angles were generally the most effective sensor signals. Using segment angles of the thigh, shank, and foot, activation and deactivation times of the six muscles could be determined to within 6% of the step cycle. The shank segment angle produced the lowest overall error and was among the top three sensors for 10 of the 12 events (activation and deactivation of six muscle groups). A segment angle sensor was implemented using a complementary filter (accelerometer/gyroscope combination). Using this sensor improved rule-based timing of FES in subjects with foot drop as compared to accelerometers alone.
IEEE transactions on neural systems and rehabilitation engineering: a publication of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society 06/2012; 20(4):488-98. · 2.42 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The biological central pattern generator (CPG) integrates open and closed loop control to produce over-ground walking. The goal of this study was to develop a physiologically based algorithm capable of mimicking the biological system to control multiple joints in the lower extremities for producing over-ground walking. The algorithm used state-based models of the step cycle each of which produced different stimulation patterns. Two configurations were implemented to restore over-ground walking in five adult anaesthetized cats using intramuscular stimulation (IMS) of the main hip, knee and ankle flexor and extensor muscles in the hind limbs. An open loop controller relied only on intrinsic timing while a hybrid-CPG controller added sensory feedback from force plates (representing limb loading), and accelerometers and gyroscopes (representing limb position). Stimulation applied to hind limb muscles caused extension or flexion in the hips, knees and ankles. A total of 113 walking trials were obtained across all experiments. Of these, 74 were successful in which the cats traversed 75% of the 3.5 m over-ground walkway. In these trials, the average peak step length decreased from 24.9 ± 8.4 to 21.8 ± 7.5 (normalized units) and the median number of steps per trial increased from 7 (Q1 = 6, Q3 = 9) to 9 (8, 11) with the hybrid-CPG controller. Moreover, within these trials, the hybrid-CPG controller produced more successful steps (step length ≤ 20 cm; ground reaction force ≥ 12.5% body weight) than the open loop controller: 372 of 544 steps (68%) versus 65 of 134 steps (49%), respectively. This supports our previous preliminary findings, and affirms that physiologically based hybrid-CPG approaches produce more successful stepping than open loop controllers. The algorithm provides the foundation for a neural prosthetic controller and a framework to implement more detailed control of locomotion in the future.
Journal of Neural Engineering 02/2012; 9(2):026003. · 3.84 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: A proposed Locomotion Processing Unit (LPU) is described for generating stimulation patterns for restoring walking in individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI). The LPU operates using sensory and timing based control providing feed forward and feedback information. By breaking down different components of locomotion into states, the LPU activates different muscle groups, or synergies, to recreate the desired functional movements. The LPU circuitry was simulated and compared against another controller designed to restore locomotion in an anesthetized cat to validate its performance.
Biomedical Circuits and Systems Conference (BioCAS), 2010 IEEE; 12/2010
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ABSTRACT: Functional electrical stimulation (FES) holds great potential for restoring motor functions after brain and spinal cord injury. Currently, most FES systems are under simple finite state control, using external sensors which tend to be bulky, uncomfortable and prone to failure. Sensory nerve signals offer an interesting alternative, with the possibility of continuous feedback control. To test feasibility, we recorded from ensembles of sensory neurons with microelectrode arrays implanted in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) of walking cats. Limb position and velocity variables were estimated accurately (average R2 values >0.5) over a range of walking speeds (0.1-0.5 m s(-1)) using a linear combination of firing rates from 10 or more neurons. We tested the feasibility of sensory control of intraspinal FES by recording from DRG neurons during hindlimb movements evoked by intraspinal microstimulation of the lumbar spinal cord in an anesthetized cat. Although electrical stimulation generated artifacts, this problem was overcome by detecting and eliminating events that occurred synchronously across the array of microelectrodes. The sensory responses to limb movement could then be measured and decoded to generate an accurate estimate of the limb state. Multichannel afferent recordings may thus provide FES systems with the feedback needed for adaptive control and perturbation compensation, though long-term stability remains a challenge.
Journal of Neural Engineering 09/2007; 4(3):S168-80. · 3.84 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Sensory feedback is required by biological motor control systems to maintain stability, respond to perturbations, and adapt. Similarly, motor neuroprostheses require feedback to provide natural and complete restoration of motor functions. In this paper, we show that ensemble firing rates from the body's mechanoreceptors can provide a natural source of kinematic state feedback and could be useful for prosthetic control. Single unit recordings from multiple primary afferent neurons were obtained during walking using multichannel electrode arrays implanted chronically in the L7 dorsal root ganglia of three cats. We typically recorded simultaneously from over 20-30 neurons during the first 7-14 days after surgery, but recordings gradually worsened thereafter. Histology indicates that a ring of inflammatory and connective tissues (100 μm thick) develops around each microelectrode and likely contributes to the degradation in recording quality. Accurate estimates of the hindlimb trajectory were made using a linear filter with inputs from only a few neurons highly correlated with limb kinematics. The coefficients for the linear filter were identified in a least-squares fit with 5-10 s of walking data (model training stage). The estimated and actual trajectories of separate walking data generally match well for walking at a range of speeds accounting for 63±22% (mean±S.D. for hip, knee, and ankle) of the variance in joint angle and 72±4% of the variance in joint angular velocities. These results indicate that a neural interface with primary sensory neurons in the dorsal root ganglion can provide accurate kinematic state information that may be useful for closed loop control of a neuroprosthesis.
IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering 07/2006; · 3.44 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Muscle, cutaneous and joint afferents continuously signal information about the position and movement of individual joints. How does the nervous system extract more global information, for example about the position of the foot in space? To study this question we used microelectrode arrays to record impulses simultaneously from up to 100 discriminable nerve cells in the L6 and L7 dorsal root ganglia (DRG) of the anaesthetized cat. When the hindlimb was displaced passively with a random trajectory, the firing rate of the neurones could be predicted from a linear sum of positions and velocities in Cartesian (x, y), polar or joint angular coordinates. The process could also be reversed to predict the kinematics of the limb from the firing rates of the neurones with an accuracy of 1-2 cm. Predictions of position and velocity could be combined to give an improved fit to limb position. Decoders trained using random movements successfully predicted cyclic movements and movements in which the limb was displaced from a central point to various positions in the periphery. A small number of highly informative neurones (6-8) could account for over 80% of the variance in position and a similar result was obtained in a realistic limb model. In conclusion, this work illustrates how populations of sensory receptors may encode a sense of limb position and how the firing of even a small number of neurones can be used to decode the position of the limb in space.
The Journal of Physiology 12/2004; 560(Pt 3):883-96. · 4.72 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The goal of this study was to test the feasibility and efficacy of using microstimulators (BIONs™) to correct foot drop, the first human application of BIONs in functional electrical stimulation (FES). A prototype BIONic foot drop stimulator was developed by modifying a WalkAide2 stimulator to control BION stimulation of the ankle dorsiflexor muscles. BION stimulation was compared with surface stimulation of the common peroneal nerve provided by a normal WalkAide2 foot drop stimulator. Compared to surface stimulation, we found that BION stimulation of the deep peroneal nerve produces a more balanced ankle flexion movement without everting the foot. A 3-D motion analysis was performed to measure the ankle and foot kinematics with and without stimulation. Without stimulation, the toe on the affected leg drags across the ground. The BIONic WalkAide elevates the foot such that the toe clears the ground by 3 cm, which is equivalent to the toe clearance in the unaffected leg. The physiological cost index (PCI) was used to measure effort during walking. The PCI is high without stimulation (2.29 ± 0.37; mean ± S.D.) and greatly reduced with surface (1.29 ± 0.10) and BION stimulation (1.46 ± 0.24). Also, walking speed is increased from 9.4 ± 0.4 m/min. without stimulation to 19.6 ± 2.0 m/min. with surface and 17.8 ± 0.7 m/min. with BION stimulation. We conclude that functional electrical stimulation with BIONs is a practical alternative to surface stimulation and provides more selective control of muscle activation.
Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 2004. IEMBS '04. 26th Annual International Conference of the IEEE; 10/2004
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ABSTRACT: Electrical stimulation offers the possibility of restoring motor function of paralyzed limbs after spinal-cord injury or stroke, but few data are available to compare possible sites of stimulation, such as muscle, nerve, spinal roots, or spinal cord. The aim of this study was to establish some characteristics of stimulation at these sites in the anesthetized and midcollicular decerebrate cat. The hind limb was constrained to move in the sagittal plane against a spring load. Ventral-root stimulation only produced movements down and back; the direction moved systematically backward the more caudal the stimulated roots. In contrast, dorsal-root stimulation only produced movements up and forward. Thus, neither method alone could produce the full range of normal movements. Muscle, nerve, and intraspinal stimulation within the intermediate regions of the gray matter generated discrete, selective movements in a wide range of directions. Muscle stimulation required an order of magnitude more current. Single microwire electrodes located in the spinal gray matter could activate a synergistic group of muscles, and generally had graded recruitment curves, but the direction of movement occasionally changed abruptly as stimulus strength increased. Nerve stimulation produced the largest movements against the spring load (>80% of the passive range of motion) and was the most reproducible from animal to animal. However, recruitment curves with nerve stimulation were quite steep, so fine control of movement might be difficult. The muscle, nerve, and spinal cord all seem to be feasible sites to restore motor function. The pros and cons from this study may be helpful in deciding the best site for a particular application, but further tests are needed in the chronically transected spinal cord to assess the applicability of these results to human patients.
IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering 04/2004; · 3.44 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: How does the activation of several muscles combine to produce reliable multijoint movements? To study this question, we stimulated up to six sites in muscles, nerves, and the spinal cord. Flexion and extension of the hip, knee, and ankle were elicited in anesthetized and decerebrate cats. The movements occurred largely in the sagittal plane against a constant spring load and covered most of the passive range of motion of the cat's limb. The movements of the end-point (foot) were compared with predictions based on vectorial summation of end-point movements elicited by stimulating single electrodes. The lengths of the movements produced by stimulating more than one site exceeded what was expected from linear summation for small movements (<3 cm) and showed a less than linear summation for large movements (>11 cm). The data were compared with muscle and limb models. Since the deviations from linearity were predictable as a function of distance, adjustments might easily be learned by trial and error. The summation was less complete for spinal stimulation, compared to nerve and muscle stimulation, so spinal circuits do not appear to compensate for the nonlinearities. Movements were elicited from positions of the limb not only in a neutral position, but also in front and behind the neutral position. A degree of convergence was seen, even with stimulation of some individual muscles, but the convergence increased as more muscles were stimulated and more joints were actively involved. This suggests that convergence to an equilibrium-point arises at least partly from muscle properties. In conclusion, there are deviations from linear vectorial summation, and these deviations increase when more muscles are stimulated. The convergence to an equilibrium-point may simplify the computations needed to produce movements involving many muscles.
IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering 03/2004; 12(1):12-23. · 3.44 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The goal of this study was to test the feasibility and efficacy of using microstimulators (BIONs) to correct foot drop, the first human application of BIONs in functional electrical stimulation (FES). A prototype BIONic foot drop stimulator was developed by modifying a WalkAide2 stimulator to control BION stimulation of the ankle dorsiflexor muscles. BION stimulation was compared with surface stimulation of the common peroneal nerve provided by a normal WalkAide2 foot drop stimulator. Compared to surface stimulation, we found that BION stimulation of the deep peroneal nerve produces a more balanced ankle flexion movement without everting the foot. A 3-D motion analysis was performed to measure the ankle and foot kinematics with and without stimulation. Without stimulation, the toe on the affected leg drags across the ground. The BIONic WalkAide elevates the foot such that the toe clears the ground by 3 cm, which is equivalent to the toe clearance in the unaffected leg. The physiological cost index (PCI) was used to measure effort during walking. The PCI is high without stimulation (2.29 +/- 0.37; mean +/- S.D.) and greatly reduced with surface (1.29 +/- 0.10) and BION stimulation (1.46 +/- 0.24). Also, walking speed is increased from 9.4 +/- 0.4 m/min. without stimulation to 19.6 +/- 2.0 m/min. with surface and 17.8 +/- 0.7 m/min. with BION stimulation. We conclude that functional electrical stimulation with BIONs is a practical alternative to surface stimulation and provides more selective control of muscle activation.
Conference proceedings: ... Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. Conference 02/2004; 6:4189-92.
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ABSTRACT: We studied the consequences of long-term implantation of a penetrating microelectrode array in peripheral nerve over the time course of 4-6 mo. Electrode arrays without lead wires were implanted to test the ability of different containment systems to protect the array and nerve during contractions of surrounding muscles. Treadmill walking was monitored and the animals showed no functional deficits as a result of implantation. In a different set of experiments, electrodes with lead wires were implanted for up to 7 mo and the animals were tested at 2-4 week intervals at which time stimulation thresholds and recorded sensory activity were monitored for every electrode. It was shown that surgical technique highly affected the long-term stimulation results. Results between measurement sessions were compared, and in the best case, the stimulation properties stabilized in 80% of the electrodes over the course of the experiment (162 days). The recorded sensory signals, however, were not stable over time. A histological analysis performed on all implanted tissues indicated that the morphology and fiber density of the nerve around the electrodes were normal.
IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 02/2004; · 2.28 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Clinical application of neural prosthetic technology raises a multitude of questions about neuromuscular anatomy and physiology. Such knowledge can be used to identify efficient and effective sites at which to apply stimulation and to identify stimulation parameters that are likely to produce the desired therapeutic effects. The scientific literature is often surprisingly patchy when it comes to making such decisions, but recently developed methodologies provide many useful tools. These have led us to a number of novel approaches that are now being tested in preclinical and clinical trials.
Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 2003. Proceedings of the 25th Annual International Conference of the IEEE; 10/2003
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ABSTRACT: A commercially available wheelchair has been modified for propulsion by movements of the lower legs. The feet are attached securely to a foot rest that can rotate around the knee joint. Movement is generated either with residual voluntary activation of the quadriceps (knee extensor) and hamstring (knee flexor) muscles, or with electrical stimulation of these muscles, if voluntary control is absent. Either a chain or a lever can couple the movements through a gearbox to the wheel to propel the wheelchair forward. Control of a wheelchair with the legs is more efficient than using the arms and has the potential to increase the mobility and whole-body fitness of many wheelchair users, but there is considerable variability between subjects. To address this variability, we measured for individual subjects the passive properties of the legs and foot at rest (effective stiffness and viscosity), the length-tension (torque-angle) properties of the active muscle groups, as well as their force-velocity curve and their activation and fatigue rates. The measured values were then inserted into a model of the leg-propelled wheelchair. The purpose of this paper is to test whether the model could predict the performance of individual subjects accurately and could be used, for example, to optimize the speed of the wheelchair for a given subject.
Medical Engineering & Physics 02/2003; 25(1):11-9. · 1.62 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: We have compared the movements generated by stimulation of muscle, nerve, spinal roots and spinal cord in anesthetized, decerebrate and spinalized cats. Each method produced a full range of movements of the cat's hind limb in the sagittal plane against a spring load, except for stimulation of the roots. Stimulation of the dorsal roots produced movements that were mainly up and forward, whereas stimulation of the ventral roots produced complementary movements (down and backward). Results from stimulation in the intermediate areas of the spinal cord were compared to predictions of the "movement primitives" hypothesis. We could not confirm that the directions were independent of stimulus amplitude or the state of descending inputs. Pros and cons of stimulating at some sites were provisionally considered for the reliable control of limb movements with functional electrical stimulation (FES) in clinical conditions.
Archives italiennes de biologie 11/2002; 140(4):273-81. · 1.29 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Some neurotransmitters act consistently on the central pattern generator (CPG) for locomotion in a wide range of vertebrates. In contrast, acetylcholine (ACh) and noradrenaline (NA) have various effects on locomotion in different preparations. The roles of ACh and NA have not been studied in amphibian walking, so we examined their effects in an isolated spinal cord preparation of the mudpuppy ( Necturus maculatus). This preparation contains a CPG that produces locomotor activity when N-methyl- D-aspartic acid (NMDA), an excitatory amino acid agonist, is added to the bath. The addition of carbachol, a long acting ACh agonist, to the bath disrupted the walking rhythm induced by NMDA, while not changing the level of activity in flexor and extensor motoneurons. Adding clonidine, an alpha(2)-noradrenergic agonist, had no effect on the NMDA-induced walking rhythm. Physostigmine, an ACh-esterase inhibitor, disrupted the walking rhythm, presumably by potentiating the effects of endogenously released ACh. Atropine, an ACh antagonist that binds to muscarinic ACh receptors, blocked the effects of carbachol, indicating that the action is mediated, at least in part, by muscarinic receptors. In the absence of carbachol, atropine had no effect. Locomotion was not induced by carbachol, atropine or clonidine in a resting spinal cord preparation. Cholinergic actions do not seem to be essential to the CPG for walking in the mudpuppy, but ACh may convert a rhythmic walking state to a more tonic state with occasional bursts of EMG activity for postural adjustments.
Experimental Brain Research 09/2002; 145(4):498-504. · 2.39 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: In order to investigate the nature (i.e. static or dynamic) of fusimotor drive to the flexor hallucis longus (FHL) and flexor digitorum longus (FDL) muscles during locomotion we recorded Ia and group II muscle spindle afferent responses to sinusoidal stretch (0.25 and 1 mm amplitude, respectively, 4-5 Hz) in a decerebrate cat preparation. FHL Ia and group II afferents generally had increased discharge rates and decreased modulation to stretch throughout the step cycle, compared to rest, suggesting raised static gamma drive at all locomotor phases. Although the modulation of Ia afferents was reduced during locomotion, most (13 of 18) showed a clear increasing trend during homonymous muscle activity (extension). This was consistent with phasic dynamic gamma drive to FHL spindles linked with alpha drive. In agreement with previous reports, FHL gave a single burst of EMG activity during the step cycle while FDL alpha drive had two components. One was related to extension while the other comprised a brief burst around the end of this phase. Typically FDL Ia and group II afferents also had elevated firing rates and reduced modulation at all locomotor phases, again implicating static gamma drive. Half the afferents (seven Ia, three group II) showed increased discharge during extension, suggesting phasic static gamma drive. There was no gamma drive associated with the late FDL alpha burst. In conclusion, the gamma drives to FHL and FDL differed during locomotion. FHL, which has the alpha drive of a classic extensor, received gamma drive that closely resembled other extensors. The gamma drive of FDL, which exhibits both extensor and flexor alpha synergies, did not match either muscle type. These observations are compatible with the view that fusimotor drive varies in different muscles during locomotion according to the prevailing sensorimotor requirements.
The Journal of Physiology 09/2002; 542(Pt 3):939-49. · 4.72 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: To determine whether a new leg-propelled wheelchair provides enhanced efficiency and mobility to wheelchair users.
Observational; subjects were tested while wheeling with the arms and legs and while walking (where possible) for 4-minute periods in random order with approximately 10-minute rest periods between exercise sets.
Tests were done on an indoor 200-meter track.
Group 1, 13 controls; group 2, 9 persons with complete spinal cord injury (SCI); group 3, 13 persons with other motor disorders (retaining some voluntary control of the legs).
Not applicable.
Physiological Cost Index (PCI), (computed as change in heart rate divided by velocity of movement) and oxygen consumption (VO(2))
Arm wheeling took significantly more effort (mean PCI =.52 beats/m) than walking (.33 beats/m) in control subjects. Leg wheeling was most efficient (.23), requiring less than half the effort of arm wheeling and 30% less effort than walking. For SCI subjects, leg wheeling with functional electric stimulation (FES) required less than half the effort (.18) of arm wheeling (.40). The FES group could not walk. Subjects in group 3 could walk, but with substantial effort (1.81) compared with arm (.76) or leg wheeling (.64). Results for VO(2) were similar.
Better wheelchair efficiency can be obtained for many disabled individuals, by moving the leg muscles voluntarily or with FES.
Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 10/2001; 82(9):1198-203. · 2.28 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Restoration of motor function to individuals who have had spinal cord injuries or stroke has been hampered by the lack of an interface to the peripheral nervous system. A suitable interface should provide selective stimulation of a large number of individual muscle groups with graded recruitment of force. We have developed a new neural interface, the Utah Slanted Electrode Array (USEA), that was designed to be implanted into peripheral nerves. Its goal is to provide such an interface that could be useful in rehabilitation as well as neuroscience applications. In this study, the stimulation capabilities of the USEA were evaluated in acute experiments in cat sciatic nerve. The recruitment properties and the selectivity of stimulation were examined by determining the target muscles excited by stimulation via each of the 100 electrodes in the array and using force transducers to record the force produced in these muscles. It is shown in the results that groups of up to 15 electrodes were inserted into individual fascicles. Stimulation slightly above threshold was selective to one muscle group for most individual electrodes. At higher currents, co-activation of agonist but not antagonist muscles was observed in some instances. Recruitment curves for the electrode array were broader with twitch thresholds starting at much lower currents than for cuff electrodes. In these experiments, it is also shown that certain combinations of electrode pairs, inserted into an individual fascicle, excite fiber populations with substantial overlap, whereas other pairs appear to address independent populations. We conclude that the USEA permits more selective stimulation at much lower current intensities with more graded recruitment of individual muscles than is achieved by conventional cuff electrodes.
Journal of Neurophysiology 05/2001; 85(4):1585-94. · 3.32 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Cutaneous reflexes in lower limb muscles were recorded from healthy human subjects after non-noxious electrical stimulation of superficial peroneal (SP), sural and distal tibial nerves while subjects: (1) made graded voluntary contractions of the ankle and knee extensor and flexor muscles while mimicking late stance or heel strike limb positions; and (2) walked on a treadmill at speeds of 2 and 4 km/h. During standing, net reflexes were predominantly suppressive and graded with background EMG. In contrast, during walking net reflexes were mostly facilitatory and uncorrelated with background EMG. Opposite signs (negative during standing, positive during walking) and significant differences of the reflex ratio (net reflex/background EMG) were seen in most leg muscles. The nerve stimulated did not determine the sign of the net reflex while standing: nerve specificity was absent. We suggest that during standing, where maintenance of posture is of primary importance, there is a reduction of effort that led to increased cutaneous input (i.e., a global suppressive response), while during walking there is a modulation of reflexes which is independent of muscle activation level but closely tied to events occurring in the step cycle.
Experimental Brain Research 08/2000; 133(2):267-72. · 2.39 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: To quantify the importance of reflexes due to muscle length changes in generating force during walking, we studied high decerebrate cats that walked on a treadmill. One leg was denervated except for the triceps surae and a few other selected muscles. The triceps surae muscles are ankle extensor muscles that attach to the Achilles' tendon which was cut and connected to a muscle puller. In some steps the EMG activity triggered the puller to move the muscle through the pattern of length changes that are normally produced by ankle movements in intact cats walking over ground (simulated walking). In other steps the muscles were held isometrically. The EMG and force produced during the two types of steps were compared. On average about 50 % more EMG was generated during the E2 part of the simulated stance phase in the triceps surae muscles, but not in other muscles studied. Force was increased significantly over the entire stance phase by about 20 %, when muscle stretches simulating walking were applied. However, during much of the stance phase the triceps surae muscles are shortening and so would produce less force. The effect of shortening was assessed in control experiments in which these muscles were stimulated at a constant frequency, either isometrically or during simulated walking movements. By combining data from the walking and control experiments, we estimate that about 35 % of the force produced in the cat ankle extensors during stance is produced by reflexes due to muscle length changes. Other sensory inputs may also contribute to force production, but the total reflex contribution will vary under different conditions of speed, length, loading, task difficulty, etc. Since a substantial percentage of the force in the stance phase of walking is normally produced by muscle reflexes, this force can be continuously adjusted up or down, if the muscles receive extra stretch or unloading during a particular step cycle.
The Journal of Physiology 07/2000; 525 Pt 3:781-91. · 4.72 Impact Factor
