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ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study is to find longitudinal evidence of the effect of targeted peer victimization (TPV) on depressive cognitions as a function of victimization type and gender. Prospective relations of physical and relational peer victimization to positive and negative self-cognitions were examined in a 1-year, 2-wave longitudinal study. Self-reports of cognitions and both peer nomination and self-report measures of peer victimization experiences were obtained from 478 predominantly Caucasian children and young adolescents (Grades 3-6 at the beginning of the study) evenly split between genders. As a result, (a) peer victimization predicted increases in negative cognitions and decreases in positive cognitions over time; (b) relational victimization was more consistently related to changes in depressive cognitions than was physical victimization; (c) the prospective relation between victimization and depressive cognitions was stronger for boys than for girls; and (d) when the overlap between relational and physical TPV was statistically controlled, girls experienced more relational TPV than did boys, and boys experienced more physical TPV than did girls. Peer victimization, particularly relational TPV, has a significant impact on children's depressive cognitions. This relation seems particularly true for boys. Implications for future research, clinical work with victimized youth at risk for depression, and school policy to help both victims and bullies are discussed.
Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology 08/2012; 41(5):570-83. · 1.92 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The current longitudinal study tested hypotheses about Nolen-Hoeksema's (1987, 1991) response styles theory (RST) of depression in a sample of child and adolescent public school students. Wave 1 measures of rumination, distraction, and depression were obtained 6 months prior to the 2010 Nashville flood. Similar measures plus a measure of flood-related stressors were administered at Wave 2, approximately ten days after students returned to school after the flood. Results revealed an indirect effect of preflood rumination on postflood depressive symptoms via the intervening variable of postflood rumination, and partial mediation of the effect of preflood depression on postflood depression. Further, the interaction of rumination with flood-related stressors was moderated by age, suggesting that rumination may not become a strong cognitive diathesis for depression until adolescence. Developmental implications emerged for the treatment of child and adolescent victims of natural disasters and for the application of RST to children and adolescents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
Journal of Abnormal Psychology 08/2012; · 4.86 Impact Factor
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David A Cole,
Sun-Joo Cho,
Nina C Martin,
Eric A Youngstrom,
John S March,
Robert L Findling,
Bruce E Compas,
Ian M Goodyer,
Paul Rohde,
Myrna Weissman,
Marilyn J Essex,
Janet S Hyde,
John F Curry,
Rex Forehand,
Marcia J Slattery,
Julia W Felton,
Melissa A Maxwell
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ABSTRACT: During childhood and adolescence, physiological, psychological, and behavioral processes strongly promote weight gain and increased appetite while also inhibiting weight loss and decreased appetite. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-IV (DSM-IV) treats both weight-gain/increased-appetite and weight-loss/decreased-appetite as symptoms of major depression during these developmental periods, despite the fact that one complements typical development and the other opposes it. To disentangle the developmental versus pathological correlates of weight and appetite disturbance in younger age groups, the current study examined symptoms of depression in an aggregated sample of 2307 children and adolescents, 47.25% of whom met criteria for major depressive disorder. A multigroup, multidimensional item response theory model generated three key results. First, weight loss and decreased appetite loaded strongly onto a general depression dimension; in contrast, weight gain and increased appetite did not. Instead, weight gain and increased appetite loaded onto a separate dimension that did not correlate strongly with general depression. Second, inclusion or exclusion of weight gain and increased appetite affected neither the nature of the general depression dimension nor the fidelity of major depressive disorder diagnosis. Third, the general depression dimension and the weight-gain/increased-appetite dimension showed different patterns across age and gender. In child and adolescent populations, these results call into question the utility of weight gain and increased appetite as indicators of depression. This has serious implications for the diagnostic criteria of depression in children and adolescents. These findings inform a revision of the DSM, with implications for the diagnosis of depression in this age group and for research on depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
Journal of Abnormal Psychology 06/2012; · 4.86 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Geiser (Multitrait-multimethod-multioccasion modeling, 2009) recently presented the Correlated State-Correlated (Methods-Minus-1) [CS-C(M−1)] model for analysing longitudinal multitrait-multimethod
(MTMM) data. In the present article, the authors discuss the extension of the CS-C(M−1) model to a model that includes latent
difference variables, called CS-C(M−1) change model. The CS-C(M−1) change model allows investigators to study inter-individual
differences in intra-individual change over time, to separate true change from random measurement error, and to analyse change
simultaneously for different methods. Change in a reference method can be contrasted with change in other methods to analyse
convergent validity of change.
KeywordsMultitrait-multimethod-multioccasion analysis-Longitudinal confirmatory factor analysis-Convergent and discriminant validity-Latent change analysis-Latent difference models
AStA Advances in Statistical Analysis 04/2012; 94(2):185-201. · 0.44 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Attributional style models of depression in adults (Abramson et al. 1989, 1978) have been adapted for use with children; however, most applications do not consider that children's understanding of causal relations may be qualitatively different from that of adults. If children's causal attributions depend on children's level of cognitive development, then support for attributional models of depression in young people will vary with cognitive development. In this paper, a new measure of cognitive development, the Peabody Causal Reasoning Test (PCRT), is introduced to assess children's understanding of ability versus effort, task difficulty, and luck as causal factors. Analyses revealed that in 8- to 16-year-old children, failure to control for level of cognitive development suppressed empirical support for cognitive diathesis-stress models of depression. Statistically controlling for measures of cognitive development strengthened support for this model.
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 03/2012; 40(6):849-62. · 3.09 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: One community sample (N = 607) of youths generated self-reported responses to body dissatisfaction, from which the Adolescent Responses to Body Dissatisfaction (ARBD) inventory was constructed. A 2nd, similar sample (N = 830) completed this measure as well as measures of coping, body dissatisfaction, body mass index, depressive symptoms, and disordered eating behaviors. Evidence of 6 ARBD factors emerged: Self-Acceptance, Compensatory Thinking, Diet/Exercise, Anxious Responding, Appearance Strategies, and Social Comparison. Subscales based on these factors provided evidence of convergent, discriminant, construct, and incremental validity. Sex and ethnic differences were also evident. Adolescents' use of Self-Acceptance and Compensatory Thinking strategies appeared to attenuate the relation between body dissatisfaction and psychopathology, whereas use of Diet/Exercise and Anxious Responding appeared to exacerbate this relation, especially in adolescents who were not overweight. The ARBD provides a window into potentially healthy and unhealthy ways in which adolescents cope with body dissatisfaction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
Psychological Assessment 01/2012; 24(3):721-37. · 2.99 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Inappropriate or excessive guilt is listed as a symptom of depression by the American Psychiatric Association (1994). Although many measures of guilt have been developed, definitional and operational problems exist, especially in the application of such measures in childhood and adolescence. To address these problems, the current study introduces the Inappropriate and Excessive Guilt Scale (IEGS), assesses its validity for use with children and adolescents, and tests its relation to depression across development. From a sample of 370 children between 7 and 16 years old, results provided (1) evidence that items designed to assess inappropriate and excessive guilt converged onto a single underlying factor, (2) support for the convergent, discriminant, and construct validity of the IEGS in a general youth population, and (3) evidence of incremental validity of the IEGS over-and-above other measures of guilt. Results also supported the hypothesis that inappropriate and excessive guilt as well as negative cognitive errors become less normative and more depressotypic with age.
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 11/2011; 40(4):607-20. · 3.09 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: In a four-wave, cohort-longitudinal design with a community sample of 515 children and adolescents (grades 2 through 9), this study examined the longitudinal structure of and prospective interrelations between maladaptive cognitions and depressive symptoms. Multigroup structural equation modeling generated four major findings. First, the longitudinal structures of maladaptive cognitions and depressive symptoms consist of a single time-invariant factor and a series of time-varying factors. Second, evidence supported a model in which depressive symptoms predicted negative cognitions but not the reverse. Third, the time-invariant components of cognition and depression were highly correlated. Fourth, the strength of the depression-to-cognition relation increased with age. Implications regarding the mechanisms underlying clinical interventions with depressed children are discussed.
Journal of Abnormal Psychology 08/2011; 120(3):511-27. · 4.86 Impact Factor
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Bruce E Compas,
Rex Forehand,
Jennifer C Thigpen,
Gary Keller,
Emily J Hardcastle, David A Cole,
Jennifer Potts,
Kelly H Watson,
Aaron Rakow,
Christina Colletti,
Kristen Reeslund,
Jessica Fear,
Emily Garai,
Laura McKee,
M J Merchant,
Lorinda Roberts
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ABSTRACT: In a long-term follow-up of a randomized controlled trial (Compas et al., 2009) to examine the effects at 18- and 24-month follow-ups of a family group cognitive-behavioral (FGCB) preventive intervention for mental health outcomes for children and parents from families (N = 111) of parents with a history of major depressive disorder (MDD).
Parents with a history of MDD and their 9- to 15-year-old children were randomly assigned to a FGCB intervention or a written information comparison condition. Children's internalizing, externalizing, anxiety/depression, and depressive symptoms; episodes of MDD and other psychiatric diagnoses; and parents' depressive symptoms and episodes of MDD were assessed at 18 and 24 months after randomization.
Children in the FGCB condition were significantly lower in self-reports of anxiety/depression and internalizing symptoms at 18 months and were significantly lower in self-reports of externalizing symptoms at 18 and 24 months. Rates of MDD were significantly lower for children in the FGCB intervention over the 24-month follow-up (odds ratio = 2.91). Marginal effects were found for parents' symptoms of depression at 18 and 24 months but not for episodes of MDD.
Support was found for a FGCB preventive intervention for children of parents with a history of MDD significantly reducing children's episodes of MDD over a period of 2 years. Significant effects for the FGCB intervention were also found on internalizing and externalizing symptoms, with stronger effects at 18- than at 24-month follow-up.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 06/2011; 79(4):488-99. · 4.85 Impact Factor
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David A Cole,
Li Cai,
Nina C Martin,
Robert L Findling,
Eric A Youngstrom,
Judy Garber,
John F Curry,
Janet S Hyde,
Marilyn J Essex,
Bruce E Compas,
Ian M Goodyer,
Paul Rohde,
Kevin D Stark,
Marcia J Slattery,
Rex Forehand
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ABSTRACT: Our goals in this article were to use item response theory (IRT) to assess the relation of depressive symptoms to the underlying dimension of depression and to demonstrate how IRT-based measurement strategies can yield more reliable data about depression severity than conventional symptom counts. Participants were 3,403 children and adolescents from 12 contributing clinical and nonclinical samples; all participants had received the Kiddie Schedule of Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Aged Children. Results revealed that some symptoms reflected higher levels of depression and were more discriminating than others. Furthermore, use of IRT-based information about symptom severity and discriminability in the measurement of depression severity was shown to reduce measurement error and increase measurement fidelity.
Psychological Assessment 05/2011; 23(4):819-33. · 2.99 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The present study tested a "launch-and-grow" type of cascade model in which an earlier risk factor (e.g., exposure to maternal depression by age 12) was hypothesized to predict several risk processes during development (e.g., stress, family relationships, self-worth [SW]), which then set the course for the growth of children's depressive symptoms over time. Participants were 240 mothers and children (mean age = 11.87 years, SD = 0.57) who were evaluated annually across 6 years. The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM diagnoses was used to assess mothers' psychiatric history; 185 mothers had had a mood disorder and 55 mothers were lifetime free of psychiatric diagnoses. At each assessment, mothers completed measures of their current level of depressive symptoms and stressful life events; adolescents completed measures about their perceptions of the family environment and their SW; and clinicians rated adolescents' level of depressive symptoms based on separate interviews with the adolescent and mother. Latent growth curve analyses revealed that history of maternal depression significantly predicted the intercepts of the growth trajectories of adolescents' depressive symptoms, mothers' current depressive symptoms, stressful life events, family environment, and adolescents' SW. The intercepts of each of these variables then predicted the trajectory (i.e., slope) of the growth of adolescents' depressive symptoms across the 6 years of the study. These results were consistent with the hypothesized model of maternal depression launching a set of risk factors, which in turn predict the growth of depressive symptoms during adolescence. Implications for interventions aimed at preventing depression in at-risk youth are discussed.
Development and Psychopathology 11/2010; 22(4):819-30. · 4.40 Impact Factor
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Bruce E Compas,
Jennifer E Champion,
Rex Forehand, David A Cole,
Kristen L Reeslund,
Jessica Fear,
Emily J Hardcastle,
Gary Keller,
Aaron Rakow,
Emily Garai,
Mary Jane Merchant,
Lorinda Roberts
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ABSTRACT: In a randomized clinical trial with 111 families of parents with a history of major depressive disorder (86% mothers, 14% fathers; 86% Caucasian, 5% African-American, 3% Hispanic, 1% American Indian or Alaska Native, 4% mixed ethnicity), changes in adolescents' (mean age = 11 years; 42% female, 58% male) coping and parents' parenting skills were examined as mediators of the effects of a family group cognitive-behavioral preventive intervention on adolescents' internalizing and externalizing symptoms.
Changes in hypothesized mediators were assessed at 6 months, and changes in adolescents' symptoms were measured at a 12-month follow-up.
Significant differences favoring the family intervention compared with a written information comparison condition were found for changes in composite measures of parent-adolescent reports of adolescents' use of secondary control coping skills and direct observations of parents' positive parenting skills. Changes in adolescents' secondary control coping and positive parenting mediated the effects of the intervention on depressive, internalizing, and externalizing symptoms, accounting for approximately half of the effect of the intervention on the outcomes. Further, reciprocal relations between children's internalizing symptoms and parenting were found from baseline to 6-month follow-up.
The present study provides the first evidence for specific mediators of a family group cognitive-behavioral preventive intervention for families of parents with a history of major depressive disorder. The identification of both coping and parenting as mediators of children's mental health outcomes suggests that these variables are important active ingredients in the prevention of mental health problems in children of depressed parents.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 10/2010; 78(5):623-34. · 4.85 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The goal was to examine the relation of covert/relational and overt/physical targeted peer victimization (TPV) to each other, to positive and negative self-cognitions, and to symptoms of depression. In a sample of elementary and middle school children, TPV was assessed by self-report, peer-nomination, and parent report in a multitrait-multimethod study. Positive and negative self-cognitions and depressive symptoms were assessed by self-report. Confirmatory factor analytic results support the convergent and discriminant validity of these two types of TPV. Both kinds of TPV were significantly related to positive and negative self-cognitions as well as self-reported depressive symptoms; however, structural equation modeling revealed that the effects of covert/relational TPV accounted for the effects of overt/physical TPV. In exploratory analyses, positive and negative self-cognitions explained the relation between TPV and depressive symptoms.
Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology 05/2010; 39(3):421-35. · 1.92 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Research on the relation of guilt to psychopathology is highly inconsistent. Some studies suggest that guilt contributes to psychopathology; others suggest that guilt serves a protective role. This review of 23 theory-based definitions of guilt and 25 measures of guilt suggests that a lack of conceptual clarity may be to blame. Measures of guilt do not correspond well to the definitions from which they derive. Many definitions and measures reflect the intrusion of extraneous constructs that could confound guilt research. Furthermore, definitions and measures of guilt change with developmental level. Nevertheless, two broad conceptualizations of guilt emerge. Central to both is a focus on one's action or inactions involving real or imagined moral transgressions. Distinguishing the two conceptualizations is whether or not guilt is inherently adaptive construct, generating remorse, augmenting a sense of responsibility, and motivating reparation. Recommendations for the definition and measurement of guilt are discussed.
Clinical psychology review 03/2010; 30(5):536-46. · 4.90 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders lists weight gain or weight loss as a symptom of depression at all ages, but no study of adolescent depression has examined its relation to actual (not just self-reported) weight change. In the current longitudinal study, 215 adolescents provided physical and self-report measures of change in weight, body mass, and body fat over a 4-month time interval. They also completed psychological measures of body dissatisfaction, problematic eating attitudes, and depressive symptoms. The relation between physical measures of weight change and depressive symptoms varied with age. These relations were explained by individual differences in body dissatisfaction, eating attitudes, and behaviors, leading to questions about weight change as a symptom of depression in adolescence.
Development and Psychopathology 01/2010; 22(1):205-16. · 4.40 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The authors show how structural equation modeling can be applied to analyze change in longitudinal multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) studies. For this purpose, an extension of latent difference models (McArdle, 1988; Steyer, Eid, & Schwenkmezger, 1997) to multiple constructs and multiple methods is presented. The model allows investigators to separate true change from measurement error and to analyze change simultaneously for different methods. The authors also show how Campbell and Fiske's (1959) guidelines for analyzing convergent and discriminant validity can be applied to the measurement of latent change. The practical application of the multimethod change model is illustrated in a reanalysis of child depression and anxiety scores (N = 906 American children) that were assessed by self- and parent reports on three measurement occasions. The analyses revealed that (a) the convergent validity of change was low for both constructs and (b) sex was a significant predictor of self-reported, but not of parent reported, anxiety states. Finally, the authors discuss advantages and limitations and compare the model with other approaches for analyzing longitudinal MTMM data.
Developmental Psychology 01/2010; 46(1):29-45. · 3.21 Impact Factor
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Bruce E Compas,
Rex Forehand,
Gary Keller,
Jennifer E Champion,
Aaron Rakow,
Kristen L Reeslund,
Laura McKee,
Jessica M Fear,
Christina J M Colletti,
Emily Hardcastle,
Mary Jane Merchant,
Lori Roberts,
Jennifer Potts,
Emily Garai,
Nicole Coffelt,
Erin Roland,
Sonya K Sterba, David A Cole
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ABSTRACT: A family cognitive-behavioral preventive intervention for parents with a history of depression and their 9-15-year-old children was compared with a self-study written information condition in a randomized clinical trial (n = 111 families). Outcomes were assessed at postintervention (2 months), after completion of 4 monthly booster sessions (6 months), and at 12-month follow-up. Children were assessed by child reports on depressive symptoms, internalizing problems, and externalizing problems; by parent reports on internalizing and externalizing problems; and by child and parent reports on a standardized diagnostic interview. Parent depressive symptoms and parent episodes of major depression also were assessed. Evidence emerged for significant differences favoring the family group intervention on both child and parent outcomes; strongest effects for child outcomes were found at the 12-month assessment with medium effect sizes on most measures. Implications for the prevention of adverse outcomes in children of depressed parents are highlighted.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 12/2009; 77(6):1007-20. · 4.85 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: In a school-based, four-wave, longitudinal study, children (grades 4-7) and young adolescents (grades 6-9) completed questionnaires measuring depressive symptoms and depressive cognitions, including positive and negative cognitions on the Cognitive Triad Inventory for Children (CTI-C; Kaslow, Stark, Printz, Livingston, & Tsai, 1992) and self-perceived competence on the Self-Perception Profile for Children (SPPC; Harter, 1985). Application of the Trait-State-Occasion model (Cole, Martin, & Steiger, 2005) revealed the existence of a time-invariant trait factor and a set of time-varying occasion factors. Gender differences emerged, indicating that some cognitive diatheses were more trait-like for girls than for boys (i.e., positive and negative cognitions on the CTI-C; self-perceived physical appearance and global self-worth on the SPPC). Implications focus on the emergent gender difference in depression, the design of longitudinal studies, and clinical decisions about the implementation of prevention versus intervention programs.
Journal of Clinical Psychology 12/2009; 65(12):1312-26. · 2.12 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: In an 8-wave, 4-year longitudinal study, 787 children (Grades 3-6) completed the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (C. R. Reynolds & B. O. Richmond, 1985), a measure of the Physiological Reactivity, Worry-Oversensitivity, and Social Alienation dimensions of anxiety. A latent variable (trait-state-occasion) model and a latent growth curve model were applied to each of the 3 anxiety dimensions and to a general anxiety factor consisting of the 3 dimensions. Although the general anxiety factor reflected a significant stable trait process, the Worry-Oversensitivity and Social Alienation dimensions reflected an autoregressive process more than a stable trait dimension. In contrast to the other 2 anxiety dimensions, Physiological Reactivity reflected a significant stable trait process, suggesting that the longitudinal structure of anxiety in children depends upon the dimension assessed. In children as early as age 9 or 10, Physiological Reactivity (more than other anxiety dimensions) manifested a stable trait component. Structural findings were consistent across gender and race; however, mean differences in gender and race emerged for general anxiety and its 3 dimensions.
Psychological Assessment 09/2009; 21(3):412-24. · 2.99 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The relation between risk and outcome consists of myriad, complex, longitudinal processes. To study these relations requires research designs and statistical methods that are sensitive to the longitudinal structure of the risk, the outcome, and the risk-outcome relation. This review presents four longitudinal characteristics that can complicate psychopathology risk-outcome research. We represent each complication with an example data set. We demonstrate how conventional statistical approaches can yield highly misleading results. Finally, we review alternative statistical approaches that can handle these complications quite well.
Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 02/2009; 5:71-96. · 9.11 Impact Factor
