Nadia Robert

Publications of Nadia Robert

• Development and application of a real-time TaqMan(®) qPCR assay for detection and quantification of 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemolamae' in South American camelids.

  Authors: Marina L Meli, Christine Kaufmann, Patrik Zanolari, Nadia Robert, Barbara Willi, Hans Lutz, Regina Hofmann-Lehmann

  Veterinary microbiology. 12/2010; 146(3-4):290-4.

  Two alpacas from a herd in southwest Switzerland died for unknown reasons. Necropsy revealed chronic weight loss and pale mucous membranes. Infection with hemotropic mycoplasmas was suspected andTwo alpacas from a herd in southwest Switzerland died for unknown reasons. Necropsy revealed chronic weight loss and pale mucous membranes. Infection with hemotropic mycoplasmas was suspected and subsequently confirmed by molecular methods. In order to investigate the epidemiological situation in this herd, a real-time TaqMan(®) qPCR assay for the specific detection and quantification of hemoplasma infection in South American camelids was developed. This assay was based on the 16S rRNA gene and amplified 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemolamae' DNA, but not DNA from other hemoplasmas or non-hemotropic mycoplasma species. The lower detection limit was one copy/PCR, and the amplification efficiency was 97.4%. In 11 out of 24 clinically healthy herd mates of the two infected alpacas, 'Candidatus M. haemolamae' infection was confirmed. No correlation was found between bacterial load and clinical signs or anemia. The assay described herein enables to detect and quantify 'Candidatus M. haemolamae' and may be used in future studies to investigate the prevalence, pathogenesis and treatment follow-up of hemoplasma infections in South American camelids.

• Nutritional metabolic bone disease in juvenile veiled chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus) and its prevention.

  Authors: Stefan Hoby, Christian Wenker, Nadia Robert, Thomas Jermann, Sonja Hartnack, Helmut Segner, Claude-P Aebischer, Annette Liesegang

  The Journal of nutrition. 09/2010; 140(11):1923-31.

  Nutritional metabolic bone disease (NMBD) is one of the most frequently observed pathological conditions in herpetoculture. To develop guidelines for NMBD prevention in growing veiled chameleonsNutritional metabolic bone disease (NMBD) is one of the most frequently observed pathological conditions in herpetoculture. To develop guidelines for NMBD prevention in growing veiled chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus), 56 hatchlings were divided into 6 groups [group UV, with UVB exposure; group No: no supplements; group CaAUV: with calcium (Ca), vitamin A, UVB; group CaA: with Ca, vitamin A; group CaADUV: with Ca, vitamin A, cholecalciferol, UVB; and group CaAD, with Ca, vitamin A, cholecalciferol] and reared for 6 mo on locust-based diets. The nutrient composition of the locusts' diet and the locust-based diet for the chameleons was determined. The diagnosis included the detailed description of clinical findings, histopathology, measurements of serum Ca, 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (25-OHD(3)), liver 25-OHD(3), vitamin A, bone mineral density, and bone mineral concentration. Chameleons that received no dietary supplementation of Ca, vitamin A, and cholecalciferol developed NMBD. When Ca and vitamin A were supplemented, the chameleons did not develop NMBD, independently of additional UVB and dietary cholecalciferol. The best prevention for NMBD was achieved by chameleons that received locusts gut-loaded with 12% Ca and dusted with 250,000 IU/kg (75 mg/kg) vitamin A and 25,000 IU/kg (0.625 mg/kg) cholecalciferol plus provision of long (10 h/d), low irradiation exposure (3-120 μW/cm(2)) to UVB. Chameleons that were fed diets low in vitamin A, cholecalciferol, and Ca were diagnosed with fibrous osteodystrophy. We noticed an interaction of vitamin A and cholecalciferol supplementation in the storage of vitamin A in the liver and formation of colon calcifications. From these findings, recommendations for the rearing of juvenile chameleons were derived.

• Emergence and establishment of Usutu virus infection in wild and captive avian species in and around Zurich, Switzerland--genomic and pathologic comparison to other central European outbreaks.

  Authors: Hanspeter W Steinmetz, Tamás Bakonyi, Herbert Weissenböck, Jean-Michel Hatt, Ulrike Eulenberger, Nadia Robert, Richard Hoop, Norbert Nowotny

  Veterinary microbiology. 09/2010; 148(2-4):207-12.

  In late summer 2006 considerable mortality in wild and captive Passeriformes and Strigiformes was observed in Zurich, Switzerland. All animals were found in a range of 2 km(2). Observed clinicalIn late summer 2006 considerable mortality in wild and captive Passeriformes and Strigiformes was observed in Zurich, Switzerland. All animals were found in a range of 2 km(2). Observed clinical signs involved depression, ruffled plumage, incoordination, seizures and peracute death. Nutritional status was generally moderate to poor in wild birds, and variable in captive animals. Necropsy showed marked splenomegaly, a mild hepatomegaly, and pulmonary hyperemia in most animals. Histopathologic lesions were very discrete and consisted mainly of neuronal necrosis, leucocytolysis in and around the brain blood vessels, and miliary liver necrosis. The diagnosis Usutu virus (USUV) infection was established by USUV-specific immunohistochemistry and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Partial nucleotide sequence comparisons revealed>99% identity between the viruses that emerged in Zurich in 2006, in Vienna in 2001, and in Budapest in 2005. Since 2008 a significantly lower mortality was observed in wild Passeriformes, but USUV infection was confirmed for the first time beyond Zurich city limits. Indoor housing and regular treatment against ectoparasites are likely to have prevented acute USUV disease in captive Strigiformes. USUV is a mosquito-borne flavivirus causing fatalities in various avian species. After the initial European outbreaks in Austria in 2001 it appears that the virus has extended its range in Central Europe and has established a transmission cycle between local bird and mosquito species. Further episodes of increased avian mortality in the forthcoming years, with impact on wild and captive bird populations, predominantly Passeriformes and Strigiformes, can be anticipated. Furthermore, the possibility of broader dispersal of USUV in Europe during the next mosquito seasons must be considered and an increased mortality in Passeriformes and Strigiformes must be expected until protective "flock immunity" is established. Collections of valuable and endangered Passeriformes and Strigiformes, especially young of the year, should therefore be housed indoors or treated against ectoparasites at acceptable intervals between July and September each year.

• Investigations on the diagnosis and retroviral aetiology of renal neoplasia in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus).

  Authors: Stefka A Simova-Curd, Jon B Huder, Jurg Boeni, Nadia Robert, Jean-Michel Hatt

  Avian pathology : journal of the W.V.P.A. 06/2010; 39(3):161-7.

  The high susceptibility of budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) to neoplasia, and specifically renal neoplasia, has often been reported. Further investigations led to a suspicion of a retrovirus asThe high susceptibility of budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) to neoplasia, and specifically renal neoplasia, has often been reported. Further investigations led to a suspicion of a retrovirus as the causative agent for renal neoplasia in budgerigars, but definitive proof has yet to be found. In the present study, 32 budgerigars suspected of having renal neoplasia (based on the clinical presentation) were examined. The objectives were to investigate the use of different diagnostic methods for the ante-mortem diagnosis of this condition and to find more supporting evidence of a retroviral aetiology. The predominant clinical signs observed in budgerigars with renal neoplasia were lameness and absence of deep pain sensation of one leg. Alterations in haematology, plasma chemistry, and urine analyses could not pinpoint the cases of renal neoplasia. Contrast radiography of the intestinal tract proved to be diagnostically more useful compared with plain radiographic studies. Histology confirmed the renal neoplasia as adenocarcinoma. Investigations for virus identification included product-enhanced reverse transcriptase assay and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of avian leucosis virus group-specific antigen. Cell cultures and electron microscopy were performed on a limited number of patients. These investigations could find no presence of an exogenous, replicating retrovirus, neither could viral particles be detected by electron microscopy. Based on the current findings, it can be concluded that there is no evidence of retroviral involvement in the occurrence of renal neoplasia in budgerigars.

• Causes of mortality and diseases in farmed deer in Switzerland.

  Authors: Veronika Sieber, Nadia Robert, Martina Schybli, Heinz Sager, Raymond Miserez, Monika Engels, Marie-Pierre Ryser-Degiorgis

  Veterinary medicine international. 01/2010; 2010.

  To investigate diseases and causes of mortality in Swiss farmed deer, deer found dead or shot due to diseased condition between March 2003 and December 2004 were requested for a complete postmortemTo investigate diseases and causes of mortality in Swiss farmed deer, deer found dead or shot due to diseased condition between March 2003 and December 2004 were requested for a complete postmortem examination. One hundred and sixty-two animals were submitted. Perinatal mortality, necrobacillosis in 3 week to 6 month old deer, and endoparasitosis in 6 month to 2 year old deer were identified as the most important causes of loss, followed by ruminal acidosis, which was diagnosed in 22% of deer older than 1 year. Congenital malformations were observed in 15% of deer less than 6 months old. Reportable infectious diseases known as major problems in deer farming in other countries were rare (yersiniosis, malignant catarrhal fever) or not observed (tuberculosis, chronic wasting disease). Overall, the results indicate that the Swiss deer population does not present major health problems of concern for domestic animals.

• Seroprevalences to viral pathogens in free-ranging and captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) on Namibian farmland.

  Authors: Susanne Thalwitzer, Bettina Wachter, Nadia Robert, Gudrun Wibbelt, Thomas Müller, Johann Lonzer, Marina L Meli, Gert Bay, Heribert Hofer, Hans Lutz

  Clinical and vaccine immunology : CVI. 12/2009;

  Cheetah populations are diminishing rapidly in their natural habitat. One reason for their decline is thought to be a high susceptibility to (infectious) diseases because cheetahs in zoos suffer fromCheetah populations are diminishing rapidly in their natural habitat. One reason for their decline is thought to be a high susceptibility to (infectious) diseases because cheetahs in zoos suffer from high disease-induced mortality. Data on the health status of free-ranging cheetahs are scarce and little is known about their exposure and susceptibility to infectious diseases. We determined seroprevalence to nine key viruses (feline herpesvirus 1, feline calicivirus, feline parvovirus, feline corona virus, canine distemper virus, feline immunodeficiency virus, puma lentivirus, feline leukemia virus and rabies virus) in 68 free-ranging cheetahs on east-central Namibian farmland, 24 non-vaccinated Namibian captive cheetahs and several other wild carnivore species, and conducted necropsies of cheetahs and other wild carnivores. Eight of eleven other wild carnivores were sero-positive for at least one of the viruses, including the first record of an FIV-like infection in a wild felid west of the Kalahari, the caracal (Felis caracal). Seroprevalences of the free-ranging cheetahs were below 5% for all nine viruses, significantly lower than seroprevalences in non-vaccinated captive cheetahs and for five of seven viruses in free-ranging cheetahs from north-central Namibia previously studied (1). There was no clinical or pathological evidence for infectious diseases in living or dead cheetahs. The results suggest that - whilst free-ranging wild carnivores may be a source of pathogens -, the distribution of seroprevalences across studies mirrored local human population density and factors associated with human habitation, probably reflecting contact opportunities with (non-vaccinated) domestic and feral cats and dogs. They also suggest that Namibian cheetahs respond effectively to viral challenges, encouraging consistent and sustainable conservation efforts. 1. Munson, L., L. Marker, E. Dubovi, J. A. Spencer, J. F. Evermann, and S. J. O'Brien. 2004. J. Wildl. Dis. 40:23-31.

• Babesia capreoli infections in alpine chamois (rupicapra R. Rupicapra), roe deer (capreolus C. Capreolus) and red deer (cervus elaphus) from Switzerland.

  Authors: Stefan Hoby, Alexander Mathis, Marcus G Doherr, Nadia Robert, Marie-Pierre Ryser-Degiorgis

  Journal of wildlife diseases. 08/2009; 45(3):748-63.

  Five cases of fatal babesiosis in free-ranging chamois (Rupicapra r. rupicapra) attributed to infections with Babesia capreoli were recently recorded in two regions of the Swiss Alps. To investigateFive cases of fatal babesiosis in free-ranging chamois (Rupicapra r. rupicapra) attributed to infections with Babesia capreoli were recently recorded in two regions of the Swiss Alps. To investigate the ecologic factors that possibly lead to those fatal B. capreoli infections in chamois, blood, ticks, and demographic data of 46 roe deer (Capreolus c. capreolus), 48 chamois, and nine red deer (Cervus elaphus) were collected in 2006 and 2007 in both affected regions. Whereas no parasitic inclusions were found by microscopical examination of blood smears, B. capreoli was identified by polymerase chain reaction/sequencing in blood of 12 roe deer (26%, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 14.3-41.1), one chamois (2%, CI: 0-6.1), and one red deer (11%, CI: 0.3-48.2). Prevalence of B. capreoli was significantly higher in roe deer compared with chamois (P<0.001). All 214 ticks were identified as Ixodes ricinus, and significantly more roe deer (63%, CI: 47.5-76.8) were infested compared with chamois (21%, CI: 10.5-35.0, P<0.001). Overall, prevalences of both tick infestation and Babesia infection increased significantly (P<0.001) with decreasing altitude, and Babesia-positive samples were detected significantly more often from animals with tick infestation compared with animals without ticks (P = 0.040). Our results indicate that roe deer may play an important reservoir role for B. capreoli. It is hypothesized that the expansion of the presumed vector I. ricinus to higher elevations and its increased abundance in overlapping habitats of roe deer and chamois may favor the spillover of B. capreoli from roe deer to chamois.

• Juvenile mortality in captive lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis) at Basle Zoo and its relation to nutrition and husbandry.

  Authors: Dorothea Besselmann, Daniela Schaub, Christian Wenker, Jürg Völlm, Nadia Robert, Claude Schelling, Hanspeter Steinmetz, Marcus Clauss

  Journal of zoo and wildlife medicine : official publication of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 04/2008; 39(1):86-91.

  Since 1956, when the Basle Zoo (Switzerland) initiated the breeding of lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis), 43% of the lesser kudu juveniles died before reaching an age of 6 mo. In this study, theSince 1956, when the Basle Zoo (Switzerland) initiated the breeding of lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis), 43% of the lesser kudu juveniles died before reaching an age of 6 mo. In this study, the objective was to obtain the pathological findings, nutritional history, and family tree information in order to evaluate the influence of husbandry on juvenile mortality in these animals. The main cause of death was white muscle disease (WMD), diagnosed in 14 cases (26%) of the deceased juveniles. Although enclosure size had remained constant and animal accessibility to the public was constantly high, both herd size and juvenile mortality had increased from 1956-2004. The diet consumed by the whole group in 2004 had deficient levels of vitamin E and selenium. The increasing linear trend of the mortality rate since the 1960s was significant, and there was a significant correlation between herd size and overall juvenile mortality. In contrast, there was no correlation between herd size and the occurrence of juvenile mortality associated specifically with WMD. Other investigated factors (sex, inbreeding, and season) had no significant effect on overall mortality up to 6 mo of age or on mortality associated with WMD. These results characterize both a dietary and a husbandry problem, and are supported by a lack of similar juvenile mortality in another facility where the diet was supplemented with vitamin E, animal numbers were kept low, and the enclosure structure offered more retreat options for the animals.

• Babesiosis in free-ranging chamois (Rupicapra r. rupicapra) from Switzerland.

  Authors: Stefan Hoby, Nadia Robert, Alexander Mathis, Nicole Schmid, Marina L Meli, Regina Hofmann-Lehmann, Hans Lutz, Peter Deplazes, Marie-Pierre Ryser-Degiorgis

  Veterinary parasitology. 10/2007; 148(3-4):341-5.

  Pathological examination of five adult chamois (Rupicapra r. rupicapra) found dead in two different regions from the Swiss Alps revealed pale mucous membranes and musculature, swollen spleen andPathological examination of five adult chamois (Rupicapra r. rupicapra) found dead in two different regions from the Swiss Alps revealed pale mucous membranes and musculature, swollen spleen and haemoglobinuria. Histologically, haemosiderosis in the spleen and centrilobular hepatic necrosis were the predominant findings. On blood smears, small (approximately 0.84-1.47 microm), round to pyriform, peripherally located inclusions were present in the erythrocytes. PCR followed by sequencing of DNA extracted from blood or spleen of the infected animals revealed 99-100% identity of the amplified part of the 18S rRNA gene with GenBank entries attributed to Babesia divergens/Babesia capreoli. This is the first report of fatal Babesia infections in chamois raising the question of an emerging disease in this species.

• Equine piroplasmoses at the reintroduction site of the Przewalski's horse (Equus ferus przewalskii) in Mongolia.

  Authors: Simon R Rüegg, Paul R Torgerson, Marcus G Doherr, Peter Deplazes, Reinhard Böse, Nadia Robert, Christian Walzer

  Journal of wildlife diseases. 08/2006; 42(3):518-26.

  Piroplasmosis has been identified as a possible cause of mortality in reintroduced Przewalski's horses (Equus ferus przewalskii) in the Dsungarian Gobi (Mongolia). A cross-sectional and aPiroplasmosis has been identified as a possible cause of mortality in reintroduced Przewalski's horses (Equus ferus przewalskii) in the Dsungarian Gobi (Mongolia). A cross-sectional and a longitudinal study were conducted in a representative sample (n = 141) of the resident domestic horse population and in 23 Przewalski's horses to assess the prevalence of Theileria equi and Babesia caballi. Piroplasms were detected in blood by light microscopy in 6.7% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 3.6-12.2%) of the domestic horse samples. Antibody prevalence was 88.6% (95% CI: 82.4-92.9%) for T. equi and 75.2% (95% CI: 67.4-81.6%) for B. caballi. Antibody prevalence did not change over time, but antibody prevalence for both piroplasms were significantly lower in animals less than 1 yr of age. For both piroplasms, the prevalence of presumably maternal antibodies (falling titers) in foals was 100%. Only one of 16 foals seroconverted against T. equi during the study period, despite that piroplasms were found in two other individuals. The incidence density (ID) of T. equi in foals was therefore 0.0012 seroconversions per horse day (95% CI: 0.00029-0.0057). In contrast, yearlings had an ID of 0.0080 (95% CI: 0.0049-0.010) for T. equi and 0.0064 (95% CI: 0.0036-0.0093) for B. caballi, and in seven individuals piroplasms were detected. The seroprevalence of both piroplasms rose from 20% in spring to 100% in autumn. Comparison of domestic and Przewalski's horses resulted in a standardized prevalence ratio (SPR) of 0.98 (95% CI: 0.80-1.24, not significant) for B. caballi; in contrast, the prevalence of T. equi in Przewalski's horses was significantly lower than expected (SPR = 0.51, 95% CI: 0.50-0.64).

• Steroid hormone related male biased parasitism in chamois, Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra.

  Authors: Stefan Hoby, Franz Schwarzenberger, Marcus G Doherr, Nadia Robert, Christian Walzer

  Veterinary parasitology. 07/2006; 138(3-4):337-48.

  Parasites are linked with their host in a trophic interaction with implications for both hosts and parasites. Interaction stretches from the host's immune response to the structuring of communitiesParasites are linked with their host in a trophic interaction with implications for both hosts and parasites. Interaction stretches from the host's immune response to the structuring of communities and the evolution of biodiversity. As in many species sex determines life history strategy, response to parasites may be sex-specific. Males of vertebrate species tend to exhibit higher rates of parasites than females. Sex-associated hormones may influence immunocompetence and are hypothesised to lead to this bias. In a field study, we tested the prediction of male biased parasitism (MBP) in free ranging chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra), which are infested intensely by gastrointestinal and lung helminths. We further investigated sex differences in faecal androgen (testosterone and epiandrosterone), cortisol and oestrogen metabolites using enzyme immunoassays (EIA) to evaluate the impact of these hormones on sex dependent parasite susceptibility. Non-invasive methods were used and the study was conducted throughout a year to detect seasonal patterns. Hormone levels and parasite counts varied significantly throughout the year. Male chamois had a higher output of gastrointestinal eggs and lungworm larvae when compared to females. The hypothesis of MBP originating in sex related hormone levels was confirmed for the elevated output of lungworm larvae, but not for the gastrointestinal nematodes. The faecal output of lungworm larvae was significantly correlated with androgen and cortisol metabolite levels. Our study shows that sex differences in steroid levels play an important role to explain MBP, although they alone cannot fully explain the phenomenon.

• Pathologic findings in reintroduced Przewalski's horses (Equus caballus przewalskii) in southwestern Mongolia.

  Authors: Nadia Robert, Christian Walzer, Simon R Rüegg, Petra Kaczensky, Oyunsaikhan Ganbaatar, Christian Stauffer

  Journal of zoo and wildlife medicine : official publication of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 07/2005; 36(2):273-85.

  The Przewalski's horse (Equus caballus przewalskii) was extinct in the wild by the mid 1960s. The species has survived because of captive breeding only. The Takhin Tal reintroduction project is runThe Przewalski's horse (Equus caballus przewalskii) was extinct in the wild by the mid 1960s. The species has survived because of captive breeding only. The Takhin Tal reintroduction project is run by the International Takhi Group; it is one of two projects reintroducing horses to the wild in Mongolia. In 1997 the first harem group was released. The first foals were successfully raised in the wild in 1999. Currently, 63 Przewalski's horses live in Takhin Tal. Little information exists on causes of mortality before the implementation of a disease-monitoring program in 1998. Since 1999, all dead horses recovered (n = 28) have been examined and samples collected and submitted for further investigation. Equine piroplasmosis, a tick-transmitted disease caused by Babesia caballi or Theileria equi, is endemic in Takhin Tal and was identified as the cause of death of four stallions and one stillborn foal. In December 2000, wolf predation was implicated in the loss of several Przewalski's horses. However, thorough clinical, pathologic, and bacteriologic investigations performed on dead and surviving horses of this group revealed lesions compatible with strangles. The extreme Mongolian winter of 2000-2001 is thought to have most probably weakened the horses, making them more susceptible to opportunistic infection and subsequent wolf predation. Other occasional causes of death since 1999 were trauma, exhaustion, wasting, urolithiasis, pneumonia, abortion, and stillbirth. The pathologic examination of the Przewalski's horses did not result in a definitive diagnosis in each case. Several disease factors were found to be important in the initial phase of the reintroduction, which could potentially jeopardize the establishment of a self-sustaining population.

• Cardiac rhabdomyoma in a juvenile fallow deer (Dama dama).

  Authors: Carine Kolly, Alexandre Bidaut, Nadia Robert

  Journal of wildlife diseases. 08/2004; 40(3):603-6.

  A cardiac rhabdomyoma is described in a 6-wk-old captive fallow deer (Dama dama) that died suddenly without previous clinical signs. The tumor was characterized by multiple nodules composed of largeA cardiac rhabdomyoma is described in a 6-wk-old captive fallow deer (Dama dama) that died suddenly without previous clinical signs. The tumor was characterized by multiple nodules composed of large atypical vacuolated myoblastic cells. As previously reported in humans and other animal species, there is compelling evidence that the cardiac rhabdomyoma is a congenital developmental anomaly rather than a true neoplasm. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a cardiac tumor and a rhabdomyoma in a cervid species.

• Idiopathic acute onset myelopathy in cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) cubs.

  Authors: Christian Walzer, Angelika Url, Nadia Robert, Anna Kübber-Heiss, Norbert Nowotny, Peter Schmidt

  Journal of zoo and wildlife medicine : official publication of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 04/2003; 34(1):36-46.

  Numerous cases of ataxia, hind limb paresis, and paralysis have occurred in cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) cubs over the past 10 yr within the European Endangered Species Program population, including 12Numerous cases of ataxia, hind limb paresis, and paralysis have occurred in cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) cubs over the past 10 yr within the European Endangered Species Program population, including 12 in mainland Europe, two in the British Isles, one in Namibia, and one in Dubai. The condition is the most important medical factor limiting European cheetah population growth. Eight cubs at the Salzburg Zoo, Austria, were affected. They demonstrated upper motor neuron lesions when alive and bilateral, symmetrical myelin degeneration of the spinal cord on necropsy. Ballooning of myelin sheaths surrounded mostly preserved axons, and no spheroids, characteristic of acute axonal degeneration, were found. Myelin loss markedly exceeded axonal degeneration. The syndrome's etiology is unclear, although viral, bacterial, parasitic, genetic, nutritional-metabolic, toxic, and physical causes have been considered.

• A simple field method for spinal cord removal demonstrated in the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus).

  Authors: Christian Walzer, Anna Kübber-Heiss, Nadia Robert

  Journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation : official publication of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc. 02/2002; 14(1):76-9.

  Removal of the spinal cord is considered time consuming and difficult. A delay in the necropsy procedure, especially in the central nervous system, can result in significant tissue autolysis andRemoval of the spinal cord is considered time consuming and difficult. A delay in the necropsy procedure, especially in the central nervous system, can result in significant tissue autolysis and subsequent diagnostic difficulties. In the field, where many necropsies are performed, suitable electric saws are mostly unavailable. A technically simple and rapid method for spinal cord removal, requiring only a straightforward tool, has been devised. No necropsy-induced structural damage has been noted on histopathologic examination.

• Emergence and establishment of Usutu virus infection in wild and captive avian species in and around Zurich, Switzerland—Genomic and pathologic comparison to other central European outbreaks

  Authors: Hanspeter W. Steinmetz, Tamás Bakonyi, Herbert Weissenböck, Jean-Michel Hatt, Ulrike Eulenberger, Nadia Robert, Richard Hoop, Norbert Nowotny

  Veterinary Microbiology.

  In late summer 2006 considerable mortality in wild and captive Passeriformes and Strigiformes was observed in Zurich, Switzerland. All animals were found in a range of 2 km2. Observed clinical signsIn late summer 2006 considerable mortality in wild and captive Passeriformes and Strigiformes was observed in Zurich, Switzerland. All animals were found in a range of 2 km2. Observed clinical signs involved depression, ruffled plumage, incoordination, seizures and peracute death. Nutritional status was generally moderate to poor in wild birds, and variable in captive animals. Necropsy showed marked splenomegaly, a mild hepatomegaly, and pulmonary hyperemia in most animals. Histopathologic lesions were very discrete and consisted mainly of neuronal necrosis, leucocytolysis in and around the brain blood vessels, and miliary liver necrosis. The diagnosis Usutu virus (USUV) infection was established by USUV-specific immunohistochemistry and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Partial nucleotide sequence comparisons revealed > 99% identity between the viruses that emerged in Zurich in 2006, in Vienna in 2001, and in Budapest in 2005. Since 2008 a significantly lower mortality was observed in wild Passeriformes, but USUV infection was confirmed for the first time beyond Zurich city limits. Indoor housing and regular treatment against ectoparasites are likely to have prevented acute USUV disease in captive Strigiformes. USUV is a mosquito-borne flavivirus causing fatalities in various avian species. After the initial European outbreaks in Austria in 2001 it appears that the virus has extended its range in Central Europe and has established a transmission cycle between local bird and mosquito species. Further episodes of increased avian mortality in the forthcoming years, with impact on wild and captive bird populations, predominantly Passeriformes and Strigiformes, can be anticipated. Furthermore, the possibility of broader dispersal of USUV in Europe during the next mosquito seasons must be considered and an increased mortality in Passeriformes and Strigiformes must be expected until protective “flock immunity” is established. Collections of valuable and endangered Passeriformes and Strigiformes, especially young of the year, should therefore be housed indoors or treated against ectoparasites at acceptable intervals between July and September each year.

• Steroid hormone related male biased parasitism in chamois, Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra

  Authors: Stefan Hoby, Franz Schwarzenberger, Marcus G. Doherr, Nadia Robert, Christian Walzer

  Veterinary Parasitology.

  Parasites are linked with their host in a trophic interaction with implications for both hosts and parasites. Interaction stretches from the host's immune response to the structuring of communitiesParasites are linked with their host in a trophic interaction with implications for both hosts and parasites. Interaction stretches from the host's immune response to the structuring of communities and the evolution of biodiversity. As in many species sex determines life history strategy, response to parasites may be sex-specific. Males of vertebrate species tend to exhibit higher rates of parasites than females. Sex-associated hormones may influence immunocompetence and are hypothesised to lead to this bias. In a field study, we tested the prediction of male biased parasitism (MBP) in free ranging chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra), which are infested intensely by gastrointestinal and lung helminths. We further investigated sex differences in faecal androgen (testosterone and epiandrosterone), cortisol and oestrogen metabolites using enzyme immunoassays (EIA) to evaluate the impact of these hormones on sex dependent parasite susceptibility. Non-invasive methods were used and the study was conducted throughout a year to detect seasonal patterns. Hormone levels and parasite counts varied significantly throughout the year. Male chamois had a higher output of gastrointestinal eggs and lungworm larvae when compared to females. The hypothesis of MBP originating in sex related hormone levels was confirmed for the elevated output of lungworm larvae, but not for the gastrointestinal nematodes. The faecal output of lungworm larvae was significantly correlated with androgen and cortisol metabolite levels. Our study shows that sex differences in steroid levels play an important role to explain MBP, although they alone cannot fully explain the phenomenon.