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ABSTRACT: Apicomplexan parasites rely on calcium as a second messenger to regulate a variety of essential cellular processes. Calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPK), which transduce these signals, are conserved among apicomplexans but absent from mammalian hosts, making them attractive targets for therapeutic intervention. Despite their importance, the signaling pathways CDPK regulate remain poorly characterized, and their protein substrates are completely unknown. In Toxoplasma gondii, CDPK1 is required for calcium-regulated secretion from micronemes, thereby controlling motility, invasion, and egress from host cells. CDPK1 is unique among parasite and mammalian kinases in containing glycine at the key "gatekeeper" residue, which results in an expanded ATP-binding pocket. In the present study, we use a synthetic ATPγS analogue that displays steric complementarity to the ATP-binding pocket and hence allows identification of protein substrates based on selective thiophosphorylation. The specificity of this approach was validated by the concordance between the identified phosphorylation sites and the in vitro substrate preference of CDPK1. We further demonstrate that the phosphorylation of predicted substrates is dependent on CDPK1 both in vivo and in vitro. This combined strategy for identifying the targets of specific protein kinases provides a platform for defining the roles of CDPKs in apicomplexans.
ACS Chemical Biology 03/2013; · 6.45 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: An Abl label: The design of sensors to monitor the activity state of specific protein kinases is challenging due to the complexity of eukaryotic kinomes. Here we describe a peptide-based photoaffinity probe that specifically labels the active conformation of the Abl tyrosine kinase.
ChemBioChem 10/2012; · 3.94 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Eukaryotic cells have evolved mechanisms for ensuring growth and survival in the face of stress caused by a fluctuating environment. Saccharomyces cerevisiae has two homologous glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenases, Gpd1 and Gpd2, that are required to endure various stresses, including hyperosmotic shock and hypoxia. These enzymes are only partially redundant, and their unique functions were attributed previously to differential transcriptional regulation and localization. We find that Gpd1 and Gpd2 are negatively regulated through phosphorylation by distinct kinases under reciprocal conditions. Gpd2 is phosphorylated by the AMP-activated protein kinase Snf1 to curtail glycerol production when nutrients are limiting. Gpd1, in contrast, is a target of TORC2-dependent kinases Ypk1 and Ypk2. Inactivation of Ypk1 by hyperosmotic shock results in dephosphorylation and activation of Gpd1, accelerating recovery through increased glycerol production. Gpd1 dephosphorylation acts synergistically with its transcriptional up-regulation, enabling long-term growth at high osmolarity. Phosphorylation of Gpd1 and Gpd2 by distinct kinases thereby enables rapid adaptation to specific stress conditions. Introduction of phosphorylation motifs targeted by distinct kinases provides a general mechanism for functional specialization of duplicated genes during evolution.
Molecular and cellular biology 09/2012; · 6.06 Impact Factor
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Byung Hak Ha,
Matthew J Davis,
Catherine Chen,
Hua Jane Lou,
Jia Gao,
Rong Zhang,
Michael Krauthammer,
Ruth Halaban,
Joseph Schlessinger, Benjamin E Turk,
Titus J Boggon
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ABSTRACT: The type II p21-activated kinases (PAKs) are key effectors of RHO-family GTPases involved in cell motility, survival, and proliferation. Using a structure-guided approach, we discovered that type II PAKs are regulated by an N-terminal autoinhibitory pseudosubstrate motif centered on a critical proline residue, and that this regulation occurs independently of activation loop phosphorylation. We determined six X-ray crystal structures of either full-length PAK4 or its catalytic domain, that demonstrate the molecular basis for pseudosubstrate binding to the active state with phosphorylated activation loop. We show that full-length PAK4 is constitutively autoinhibited, but mutation of the pseudosubstrate releases this inhibition and causes increased phosphorylation of the apoptotic regulation protein Bcl-2/Bcl-X(L) antagonist causing cell death and cellular morphological changes. We also find that PAK6 is regulated by the pseudosubstrate region, indicating a common type II PAK autoregulatory mechanism. Finally, we find Src SH3, but not β-PIX SH3, can activate PAK4. We provide a unique understanding for type II PAK regulation.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 09/2012; 109(40):16107-12. · 9.68 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The serotonin transporter (SERT) is responsible for reuptake of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) after its exocytotic release from neurons. It is the primary target for antidepressants and stimulants, including "ecstasy" (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine). SERT is regulated by several processes, including a cyclic GMP signaling pathway involving nitric oxide synthase, guanylyl cyclase, and cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG). Here, we show that SERT was phosphorylated in a PKG Iα-dependent manner in vitro, but that SERT was not a direct substrate of PKG. We generated an analog-sensitive gatekeeper residue mutant of PKG Iα (M438G) that efficiently used the ATP analog N(6)-benzyl-ATP. This mutant, but not the wild type (WT) kinase, used the ATP analog to phosphorylate both a model peptide substrate as well as an established protein substrate of PKG (vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein). PKG Iα M438G effectively substituted for the WT kinase in stimulating SERT-mediated 5-hydroxytryptamine transport in cultured cells. Addition of either WT or mutant PKG Iα M438G to membranes containing SERT in vitro led to radiolabel incorporation from [γ-(33)P]ATP but not from similarly labeled N(6)-benzyl-ATP, indicating that SERT was phosphorylated by another kinase that could not utilize the ATP analog. These results are consistent with the proposed SERT phosphorylation site, Thr-276, being highly divergent from the consensus PKG phosphorylation site sequence, which we verified through peptide library screening. Another proposed SERT kinase, the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, could not substitute for PKG in this assay, and p38 inhibitors did not block PKG-dependent phosphorylation of SERT. The results suggest that PKG initiates a kinase cascade that leads to phosphorylation of SERT by an as yet unidentified protein kinase.
Journal of Biological Chemistry 08/2012; 287(43):36051-8. · 4.77 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Protease inhibitor discovery has focused almost exclusively on compounds that bind to the active site. Inhibitors targeting protease exosites, regions outside of the active site that influence catalysis, offer potential advantages of increased specificity but are difficult to systematically discover. Here, we describe an assay suitable for detecting exosite-targeting inhibitors of the metalloproteinase anthrax lethal factor (LF) based on cleavage of a full-length mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MKK) substrate. We used this assay to screen a small-molecule library and then subjected hits to a secondary screen to exclude compounds that efficiently blocked cleavage of a peptide substrate. We identified a compound that preferentially inhibited cleavage of MKKs compared with peptide substrates and could suppress LF-induced macrophage cytolysis. This approach should be generally applicable to the discovery of exosite-targeting inhibitors of many additional proteases.
Chemistry & biology 07/2012; 19(7):875-82. · 6.52 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Peptide Recognition Domains (PRDs) are commonly found in signaling proteins. They mediate protein-protein interactions by recognizing and binding short motifs in their ligands. Although a great deal is known about PRDs and their interactions, prediction of PRD specificities remains largely an unsolved problem.
We present a novel approach to identifying these Specificity Determining Residues (SDRs). Our algorithm generalizes earlier information theoretic approaches to coevolution analysis, to become applicable to this problem. It leverages the growing wealth of binding data between PRDs and large numbers of random peptides, and searches for PRD residues that exhibit strong evolutionary covariation with some positions of the statistical profiles of bound peptides. The calculations involve only information from sequences, and thus can be applied to PRDs without crystal structures. We applied the approach to PDZ, SH3 and kinase domains, and evaluated the results using both residue proximity in co-crystal structures and verified binding specificity maps from mutagenesis studies.
Our predictions were found to be strongly correlated with the physical proximity of residues, demonstrating the ability of our approach to detect physical interactions of the binding partners. Some high-scoring pairs were further confirmed to affect binding specificity using previous experimental results. Combining the covariation results also allowed us to predict binding profiles with higher reliability than two other methods that do not explicitly take residue covariation into account.
The general applicability of our approach to the three different domain families demonstrated in this paper suggests its potential in predicting binding targets and assisting the exploration of binding mechanisms.
BMC Biology 08/2011; 9:53. · 5.75 Impact Factor
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Kim K Ia,
Grace R Jeschke,
Yang Deng,
Mohd Aizuddin Kamaruddin,
Nicholas A Williamson,
Denis B Scanlon,
Janetta G Culvenor,
Mohammed Iqbal Hossain,
Anthony W Purcell,
Sheng Liu,
Hong-Jian Zhu,
Bruno Catimel, Benjamin E Turk,
Heung-Chin Cheng
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ABSTRACT: C-Terminal Src kinase-homologous kinase (CHK) exerts its tumor suppressor function by phosphorylating the C-terminal regulatory tyrosine of the Src-family kinases (SFKs). The phosphorylation suppresses their activity and oncogenic action. In addition to phosphorylating SFKs, CHK also performs non-SFK-related functions by phosphorylating other cellular protein substrates. To define these non-SFK-related functions of CHK, we used the "kinase substrate tracking and elucidation" method to search for its potential physiological substrates in rat brain cytosol. Our search revealed β-synuclein as a potential CHK substrate, and Y127 in β-synuclein as the preferential phosphorylation site. Using peptides derived from β-synuclein and positional scanning combinatorial peptide library screening, we defined the optimal substrate phosphorylation sequence recognized by the CHK active site to be E-x-[Φ/E/D]-Y-Φ-x-Φ, where Φ and x represent hydrophobic residues and any residue, respectively. Besides β-synuclein, cellular proteins containing motifs resembling this sequence are potential CHK substrates. Intriguingly, the CHK-optimal substrate phosphorylation sequence bears little resemblance to the C-terminal tail sequence of SFKs, indicating that interactions between the CHK active site and the local determinants near the C-terminal regulatory tyrosine of SFKs play only a minor role in governing specific phosphorylation of SFKs by CHK. Our results imply that recognition of SFKs by CHK is mainly governed by interactions between motifs located distally from the active site of CHK and determinants spatially separate from the C-terminal regulatory tyrosine in SFKs. Thus, besides assisting in the identification of potential CHK physiological substrates, our findings shed new light on how CHK recognizes SFKs and other protein substrates.
Biochemistry 06/2011; 50(31):6667-77. · 3.42 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The eukaryotic elongation factor 2 kinase (eEF-2K) modulates the rate of protein synthesis by impeding the elongation phase of translation by inactivating the eukaryotic elongation factor 2 (eEF-2) via phosphorylation. eEF-2K is known to be activated by calcium and calmodulin, whereas the mTOR and MAPK pathways are suggested to negatively regulate kinase activity. Despite its pivotal role in translation regulation and potential role in tumor survival, the structure, function, and regulation of eEF-2K have not been described in detail. This deficiency may result from the difficulty of obtaining the recombinant kinase in a form suitable for biochemical analysis. Here we report the purification and characterization of recombinant human eEF-2K expressed in the Escherichia coli strain Rosetta-gami 2(DE3). Successive chromatography steps utilizing Ni-NTA affinity, anion-exchange, and gel filtration columns accomplished purification. Cleavage of the thioredoxin-His(6)-tag from the N-terminus of the expressed kinase with TEV protease yielded 9 mg of recombinant (G-D-I)-eEF-2K per liter of culture. Light scattering shows that eEF-2K is a monomer of ∼85 kDa. In vitro kinetic analysis confirmed that recombinant human eEF-2K is able to phosphorylate wheat germ eEF-2 with kinetic parameters comparable to the mammalian enzyme.
Protein Expression and Purification 05/2011; 79(2):237-44. · 1.59 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Protein kinases vary substantially in their consensus phosphorylation motifs, the residues that are either preferred or deselected by the kinase at specific positions surrounding the phosphorylation site. The protocol described here is used to rapidly determine phosphorylation motifs for serine-threonine kinases. The procedure involves screening an arrayed combinatorial peptide library consisting of 198 biotinylated substrates. Peptides are phosphorylated by the kinase of interest in the presence of radiolabeled ATP and then captured on streptavidin membrane. The membrane is subsequently washed, dried, and exposed to a phosphor screen to visualize and quantify incorporation of radiolabel into the peptides. The phosphorylation motif is thereby derived from the relative extent of phosphorylation of each peptide in the array.
Current protocols in molecular biology / edited by Frederick M. Ausubel ... [et al.] 07/2010; Chapter 18:Unit 18.14.
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Janine Mok,
Philip M Kim,
Hugo Y K Lam,
Stacy Piccirillo,
Xiuqiong Zhou,
Grace R Jeschke,
Douglas L Sheridan,
Sirlester A Parker,
Ved Desai,
Miri Jwa, [......],
Clarence S M Chan,
Claudio De Virgilio,
Nancy M Hollingsworth,
Wendell A Lim,
David F Stern,
Bruce Stillman,
Brenda J Andrews,
Mark B Gerstein,
Michael Snyder, Benjamin E Turk
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ABSTRACT: Phosphorylation is a universal mechanism for regulating cell behavior in eukaryotes. Although protein kinases target short linear sequence motifs on their substrates, the rules for kinase substrate recognition are not completely understood. We used a rapid peptide screening approach to determine consensus phosphorylation site motifs targeted by 61 of the 122 kinases in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. By correlating these motifs with kinase primary sequence, we uncovered previously unappreciated rules for determining specificity within the kinase family, including a residue determining P-3 arginine specificity among members of the CMGC [CDK (cyclin-dependent kinase), MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase), GSK (glycogen synthase kinase), and CDK-like] group of kinases. Furthermore, computational scanning of the yeast proteome enabled the prediction of thousands of new kinase-substrate relationships. We experimentally verified several candidate substrates of the Prk1 family of kinases in vitro and in vivo and identified a protein substrate of the kinase Vhs1. Together, these results elucidate how kinase catalytic domains recognize their phosphorylation targets and suggest general avenues for the identification of previously unknown kinase substrates across eukaryotes.
Science Signaling 01/2010; 3(109):ra12. · 7.50 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Many protein interactions, especially those involved in signaling, involve short linear motifs consisting of 5-10 amino acid residues that interact with modular protein domains such as the SH3 binding domains and the kinase catalytic domains. One straightforward way of identifying these interactions is by scanning for matches to the motif against all the sequences in a target proteome. However, predicting domain targets by motif sequence alone without considering other genomic and structural information has been shown to be lacking in accuracy.
We developed an efficient search algorithm to scan the target proteome for potential domain targets and to increase the accuracy of each hit by integrating a variety of pre-computed features, such as conservation, surface propensity, and disorder. The integration is performed using naïve Bayes and a training set of validated experiments.
By integrating a variety of biologically relevant features to predict domain targets, we demonstrated a notably improved prediction of modular protein domain targets. Combined with emerging high-resolution data of domain specificities, we believe that our approach can assist in the reconstruction of many signaling pathways.
BMC Bioinformatics 01/2010; 11:243. · 2.75 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Ephrin receptor tyrosine kinase A3 (EphA3, EC 2.7.10.1) is a member of a unique branch of the kinome in which downstream signaling occurs in both ligand- and receptor-expressing cells. Consequently, the ephrins and ephrin receptor tyrosine kinases often mediate processes involving cell-cell contact, including cellular adhesion or repulsion, developmental remodeling and neuronal mapping. The receptor is also frequently overexpressed in invasive cancers, including breast, small-cell lung and gastrointestinal cancers. However, little is known about direct substrates of EphA3 kinase and no chemical probes are available. Using a library approach, we found a short peptide sequence that is a good substrate for EphA3 and is suitable for co-crystallization studies. Complex structures show multiple contacts between kinase and substrates; in particular, two residues undergo conformational changes and by mutation are found to be important for substrate binding and turnover. In addition, a difference in catalytic efficiency between EPH kinase family members is observed. These results provide insight into the mechanism of substrate binding to these developmentally integral enzymes.
FEBS Journal 09/2009; 276(16):4395-404. · 3.79 Impact Factor
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Alex N Bullock,
Sanjan Das,
Judit E Debreczeni,
Peter Rellos,
Oleg Fedorov,
Frank H Niesen,
Kunde Guo,
Evangelos Papagrigoriou,
Ann L Amos,
Suhyung Cho, Benjamin E Turk,
Gourisankar Ghosh,
Stefan Knapp
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ABSTRACT: Splicing requires reversible phosphorylation of serine/arginine-rich (SR) proteins, which direct splice site selection in eukaryotic mRNA. These phosphorylation events are dependent on SR protein (SRPK) and cdc2-like kinase (CLK) families. SRPK1 phosphorylation of splicing factors is restricted by a specific docking interaction whereas CLK activity is less constrained. To understand functional differences between splicing factor targeting kinases, we determined crystal structures of CLK1 and CLK3. Intriguingly, in CLKs the SRPK1 docking site is blocked by insertion of a previously unseen helix alphaH. In addition, substrate docking grooves present in related mitogen activating protein kinases (MAPKs) are inaccessible due to a CLK specific beta7/8-hairpin insert. Thus, the unconstrained substrate interaction together with the determined active-site mediated substrate specificity allows CLKs to complete the functionally important hyperphosphorylation of splicing factors like ASF/SF2. In addition, despite high sequence conservation, we identified inhibitors with surprising isoform specificity for CLK1 over CLK3.
Structure 04/2009; 17(3):352-62. · 6.35 Impact Factor
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Benjamin E Turk
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ABSTRACT: All proteases and peptidases are to some extent sequence-specific, in that one or more residues are preferred at particular positions surrounding the cleavage site in substrates. I describe here a general protocol for determining protease cleavage site preferences using mixture-based peptide libraries. Initially a completely random, amino-terminally capped peptide mixture is digested with the protease of interest, and the cleavage products are analyzed by automated Edman sequencing. The distribution of amino acids found in each sequencing cycle indicates which residues are preferred by the protease at positions downstream of the cleavage site. On the basis of these results, a second peptide library is designed that is partially degenerate and partially fixed sequence. Edman sequencing analysis of the cleavage products of this peptide mixture provides preferences amino-terminal to the scissile bond. As necessary, the process is reiterated until the full cleavage motif of the protease is known. Cleavage specificity data obtained with this method have been used to generate specific and efficient peptide substrates, to design potent and specific inhibitors, and to identify novel protease substrates.
Methods in molecular biology (Clifton, N.J.) 02/2009; 539:79-91.
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ABSTRACT: The mammalian ortholog of the retroviral oncogene v-Eyk, and a receptor tyrosine kinase upstream of antiapoptotic and transforming signals, Mer (MerTK) is a mediator of the phagocytic process, being involved in retinal and immune cell clearance and platelet aggregation. Mer knockout mice are viable and are protected from epinephrine-induced pulmonary thromboembolism and ferric chloride-induced thrombosis. Mer overexpression, on the other hand, is associated with numerous carcinomas. Although Mer adaptor proteins and signaling pathways have been identified, it remains unclear how Mer initiates phagocytosis. When bound to its nucleotide cofactor, the high-resolution structure of Mer shows an autoinhibited alphaC-Glu-out conformation with insertion of an activation loop residue into the active site. Mer complexed with compound-52 (C52: 2-(2-hydroxyethylamino)-6-(3-chloroanilino)-9-isopropylpurine), a ligand identified from a focused library, retains its DFG-Asp-in and alphaC-Glu-out conformation, but acquires other conformational changes. The alphaC helix and DFGL region is closer to the hinge region and the ethanolamine moiety of C52 binds in the groove formed between Leu593 and Val601 of the P-loop, causing a compression of the active site pocket. These conformational states reveal the mechanisms of autoinhibition, the pathophysiological basis of disease-causing mutations, and a platform for the development of chemical probes.
Journal of Structural Biology 12/2008; 165(2):88-96. · 3.41 Impact Factor
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Panagis Filippakopoulos,
Michael Kofler,
Oliver Hantschel,
Gerald D Gish,
Florian Grebien,
Eidarus Salah,
Philipp Neudecker,
Lewis E Kay, Benjamin E Turk,
Giulio Superti-Furga,
Tony Pawson,
Stefan Knapp
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ABSTRACT: The SH2 domain of cytoplasmic tyrosine kinases can enhance catalytic activity and substrate recognition, but the molecular mechanisms by which this is achieved are poorly understood. We have solved the structure of the prototypic SH2-kinase unit of the human Fes tyrosine kinase, which appears specialized for positive signaling. In its active conformation, the SH2 domain tightly interacts with the kinase N-terminal lobe and positions the kinase alphaC helix in an active configuration through essential packing and electrostatic interactions. This interaction is stabilized by ligand binding to the SH2 domain. Our data indicate that Fes kinase activation is closely coupled to substrate recognition through cooperative SH2-kinase-substrate interactions. Similarly, we find that the SH2 domain of the active Abl kinase stimulates catalytic activity and substrate phosphorylation through a distinct SH2-kinase interface. Thus, the SH2 and catalytic domains of active Fes and Abl pro-oncogenic kinases form integrated structures essential for effective tyrosine kinase signaling.
Cell 10/2008; 134(5):793-803. · 32.40 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) mediate cellular responses to a wide variety of extracellular stimuli. MAPK signal transduction cascades are tightly regulated, and individual MAPKs display exquisite specificity in recognition of their target substrates. All MAPK family members share a common phosphorylation site motif, raising questions as to how substrate specificity is achieved. Here we describe a peptide library screen to identify sequence requirements of the DEF site (docking site for ERK FXF), a docking motif separate from the phosphorylation site. We show that MAPK isoforms recognize DEF sites with unique sequences and identify two key residues on the MAPK that largely dictate sequence specificity. Based on these observations and computational docking studies, we propose a revised model for MAPK interaction with substrates containing DEF sites. Variations in DEF site sequence requirements provide one possible mechanism for encoding complex target specificity among MAPK isoforms.
Journal of Biological Chemistry 08/2008; 283(28):19511-20. · 4.77 Impact Factor
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Benjamin E Turk
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ABSTRACT: Anthrax is caused by infection with Bacillus anthracis, a spore forming, rod-shaped, encapsulated gram positive bacteria. The disease manifests itself in distinct ways depending on the route of entry of infective bacterial spores: cutaneous, inhalational, and gastrointestinal. Though rare in humans, inhalational anthrax has become a major concern due to the capacity for spores to be weaponized. The limited success of antibiotic therapy has motivated investigation of complementary therapeutic strategies that target the bacteria's secreted toxin. The zinc-dependent metalloproteinase lethal factor (LF) is a critical component of anthrax toxin and an important potential target for small molecule drugs. In the past few years, a number of approaches have been taken to identify LF inhibitors, from generating conventional metal chelating substrate analogs to random screening of diverse compound libraries. These efforts have produced several different classes of specific nanomolar range inhibitors. Some compounds have fared well in animal models for anthrax toxemia and infection, and these inhibitors and their derivatives may form the basis for future therapies to treat the disease in humans.
Current pharmaceutical biotechnology 03/2008; 9(1):24-33. · 3.40 Impact Factor
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Benjamin E Turk
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ABSTRACT: Protein kinases play a virtually universal role in cellular regulation and are emerging as an important class of new drug targets, yet the cellular functions of most human kinases largely remain obscure. Aspects of substrate recognition common to all kinases in the ATP nucleotide binding site have been exploited in the generation of analog-specific mutants for exploring kinase function and discovering novel protein substrates. Likewise, understanding interactions with the protein substrate, which differ substantially between kinases, can also help to identify substrates and to produce tools for studying kinase pathways, including fluorescent biosensors. Principles of kinase substrate recognition are particularly valuable in guiding bioinformatics and phosphoproteomics approaches that impact our understanding of signaling pathways and networks on a global scale.
Current Opinion in Chemical Biology 03/2008; 12(1):4-10. · 9.85 Impact Factor
