-
[show abstract]
[hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: 1.Overfishing, pollution, coastal development and climate change threaten marine biodiversity globally and compromise the services that marine ecosystems provide. Systematic conservation planning (SCP) provides a framework to identify areas where actions can be effective in addressing these threats, while minimizing the costs of interventions. This study investigated the application of SCP in the Gulf of California, a marine hotspot where seven prioritization exercises have been undertaken.
2.The review of planning exercises showed that the use of SCP methods has progressed slowly (gaps include planning for land–sea connections and ecosystem services) and highlighted benefits and difficulties of applying SCP principles and tools.
3.Despite some convergence, important spatial differences were found in priorities between plans. Convergence was evident in well-studied shallow and benthic marine ecosystems. There were also important differences related to the planning approach, methods and extent. Divergence between methodological and spatial similarities between plans suggests that additional factors (e.g. manually delineating priority areas, incorporating updated datasets, random error), in addition to data and objectives, play an important role in defining the distribution of conservation priorities.
4.According to expert opinion, the implementation of new marine protected areas (MPAs) in the region has been influenced by some of the planning exercises. However, uptake of planning outputs has progressed slowly for many reasons (e.g. conflicting mandates and interests between organizations, limited technical capacities and resources, insufficient political commitment). Other benefits of planning included: developing institutional skills and knowledge; improving collaboration and coordination between organizations (including agencies, and local, regional and national NGOs); converging on the need to assess priorities for marine conservation in regional context; and building trust among organizations.
5.The existence of multiple marine conservation plans in the Gulf of California also highlighted some of the complexities and benefits of having multiple sets of priorities.
Aquatic Conservation Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 03/2013; · 1.93 Impact Factor
-
Jorge G Alvarez-Romero,
Michelle Devlin,
Eduardo Teixeira da Silva,
Caroline Petus,
Natalie C Ban, Robert L Pressey,
Johnathan Kool,
Jason J Roberts,
Sergio Cerdeira-Estrada,
Amelia S Wenger,
Jon Brodie
[show abstract]
[hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: Increased loads of land-based pollutants are a major threat to coastal-marine ecosystems. Identifying the affected marine areas and the scale of influence on ecosystems is critical to assess the impacts of degraded water quality and to inform planning for catchment management and marine conservation. Studies using remotely-sensed data have contributed to our understanding of the occurrence and influence of river plumes, and to our ability to assess exposure of marine ecosystems to land-based pollutants. However, refinement of plume modeling techniques is required to improve risk assessments. We developed a novel, complementary, approach to model exposure of coastal-marine ecosystems to land-based pollutants. We used supervised classification of MODIS-Aqua true-color satellite imagery to map the extent of plumes and to qualitatively assess the dispersal of pollutants in plumes. We used the Great Barrier Reef (GBR), the world's largest coral reef system, to test our approach. We combined frequency of plume occurrence with spatially distributed loads (based on a cost-distance function) to create maps of exposure to suspended sediment and dissolved inorganic nitrogen. We then compared annual exposure maps (2007-2011) to assess inter-annual variability in the exposure of coral reefs and seagrass beds to these pollutants. We found this method useful to map plumes and qualitatively assess exposure to land-based pollutants. We observed inter-annual variation in exposure of ecosystems to pollutants in the GBR, stressing the need to incorporate a temporal component into plume exposure/risk models. Our study contributes to our understanding of plume spatial-temporal dynamics of the GBR and offers a method that can also be applied to monitor exposure of coastal-marine ecosystems to plumes and explore their ecological influences.
Journal of Environmental Management 03/2013; 119C:194-207. · 3.24 Impact Factor
-
Natalie C. Ban,
Morena Mills,
Jordan Tam,
Christina C. Hicks,
Sarah Klain,
Natalie Stoeckl,
Madeleine C. Bottrill,
Jordan Levine, Robert L. Pressey,
Terre Satterfield,
Kai M. A. Chan
Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 01/2013; · 9.11 Impact Factor
-
Marine Policy 01/2013; 39:248-256. · 1.87 Impact Factor
-
[show abstract]
[hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: The outcomes of systematic conservation planning (process of assessing, implementing, and managing conservation areas) are rarely reported or measured formally. A lack of consistent or rigorous evaluation in conservation planning has fueled debate about the extent to which conservation assessment (identification, design, and prioritization of potential conservation areas) ultimately influences actions on the ground. We interviewed staff members of a nongovernmental organization, who were involved in 5 ecoregional assessments across North and South America and the Asia-Pacific region. We conducted 17 semistructured interviews with open and closed questions about the perceived purpose, outputs, and outcomes of the ecoregional assessments in which respondents were involved. Using qualitative data collected from those interviews, we investigated the types and frequency of benefits perceived to have emerged from the ecoregional assessments and explored factors that might facilitate or constrain the flow of benefits. Some benefits reflected the intended purpose of ecoregional assessments. Other benefits included improvements in social interactions, attitudes, and institutional knowledge. Our results suggest the latter types of benefits enable ultimate benefits of assessments, such as guiding investments by institutional partners. Our results also showed a clear divergence between the respondents' expectations and perceived outcomes of implementation of conservation actions arising from ecoregional assessments. Our findings suggest the need for both a broader perspective on the contribution of assessments to planning goals and further evaluation of conservation assessments.
Conservation Biology 07/2012; 26(5):851-861. · 4.69 Impact Factor
-
[show abstract]
[hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: Spatial and temporal dynamics of ecological processes have long been considered important in marine systems, but seldom have conservation objectives been set for them. Climate change makes the consideration of the dynamics of ecological processes in the design of marine protected areas critical. We analyzed sea-surface temperature (SST) trends and variability in Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) for 25 years and formulated and tested whether three sets of notional conservation objectives were met to illustrate the potential for planning to address climate change. Given mixed and limited evidence that no-take areas increase resilience to disturbances such as anomalously high temperatures (i.e., temperatures ≥1 °C above weekly mean temperature), our conservation objectives focused on areas less likely to be affected by such events at extents ranging from the entire Great Barrier Reef to the system of no-take zones and individual no-take zones. The objective sets were (1) at least 50% of temperature refugia (i.e., pixels that had high-temperature anomalies <5% or <7% of the time) within no-take zones, (2) maximum occurrence of high-temperature anomalies is <10%,< 20%, or <30% of total no-take area 90% of the time, and (3) coverage of any single no-take zone by high-temperature anomalies occurs <5% or <10% of the time. We used satellite imagery from 1985-2009 to measure SST to determine high-temperature anomalies. SSTs in the Great Barrier Reef increased significantly in some regions, and some of the conservation objectives were met by the park's current zoning plan. Dialogue between conservation scientists and managers is needed to develop appropriate conservation objectives under climate change and strategies to meet them.
Conservation Biology 07/2012; 26(5):799-809. · 4.69 Impact Factor
-
[show abstract]
[hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: Abstract
Spatial management, including setting aside conservation areas, is central
to curbing the global decline of biodiversity, but many threats originate
from beyond the boundaries of conservation areas. This is a particular problem
in marine systems, which are influenced by many activities on land. In
addition, connections between land and sea support many species and ecological
processes valued for conservation. Integrated land and sea conservation
planning is therefore of utmost importance. We review the literature
describing connections between land and sea and how they have been incorporated
into conservation planning. Land-sea connections include land-sea
processes, the natural flows occurring between realms; cross-system threats,
which originate in one realm and affect another; and socioeconomic interactions
associated with management decisions to maintain or restore land-sea
processes and to prevent or mitigate cross-system threats. We highlight the
need to explicitly incorporate land-sea connections in conservation planning
and suggest ways of doing this through the use of a novel operational framework
for integrated land-sea planning. On the basis of expert surveys and a
literature review, we also identify those aspects of conservation planning for
which improved integration between land and sea is most needed.
Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics 01/2012; 42:381-409. · 14.37 Impact Factor
-
[show abstract]
[hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: Tropical montane cloud forests are among the most vulnerable terrestrial ecosystems to climate change 1–3 owing to their restricted climatic requirements and their narrow and frag-mented distribution 4 . Although 12% of Mexican cloud forest is protected, it is not known whether reserves will ensure the persistence of the ecosystem and its endemic species under climate change. Here, we show that 68% of Mexico's cloud forest could vanish by 2080 because of climate change and more than 90% of cloud forest that is protected at present will not be climatically suitable for that ecosystem in 2080. Moreover, if we assume unprotected forests are cleared, 99% of the entire ecosystem could be lost through a combination of climate change and habitat loss, resulting in the extinction of about 70% of endemic cloud forest vertebrate species. Im-mediate action is required to minimize this loss—expansion of the protected-area estate in areas of low climate vulnerability is an urgent priority. Our analysis indicates that one key area for immediate protection is the Sierra de Juárez in Oaxaca. This area supports many endemic species and is expected to retain relatively large fragments of cloud forest despite rapid climate change. Cloud forests occur only within narrow altitudinal limits and contain a highly specialized suite of species dependent on montane topography and cloud-related microclimates. In Mexico, cloud forests account for 1% of land area, but support the highest concentration of plant and animal diversity of any Mexican ecosystem and they constitute the second richest ecosystem for endemic terrestrial vertebrates in Mesoamerica 5 . Although habitat loss and degradation by human encroachment are the chief contemporary threats to cloud forests globally 6 , the narrow environmental tolerance of this ecosystem indicates that human-induced climate change could constitute an even greater peril in the near future. Changes in regional temperature and precipitation patterns are already influencing the extent and distribution of these forests 1,2 , so it is essential that we understand how future climate change will affect cloud forests 7 . Based on climate projections for 2080, we estimated the potential distribution and extent of Mexican cloud forests and the loss of cloud forest endemic species due to habitat loss (see Methods). We forecasted the present and future overlap with protected areas 8 for two different scenarios. In the first scenario we estimated only the climate-driven threat, and in the second, we added the impacts of potential land-use change. To account for uncertainties inherent in
Nature Climate Change 01/2012; 2:448-452.
-
[show abstract]
[hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: The marginal benefits of systematic over ad hoc selection of protected areas are rarely measured, even though this information is crucial to investing limited conservation resources effectively. We developed a method to predict the marginal benefits of systematic over ad hoc approaches to conservation over time. We tested it in Fiji, where ambitious national conservation goals for inshore marine waters rely on community support to implement the required management. We used Maxent to develop a suitability layer for different forms of marine resource management based on predictors derived from interviews with key informants. This suitability layer, together with data on established marine protected areas (MPAs) and the software Marxan with Zones, informed simulations of the expansion of ad hoc and systematic conservation. With the same constraints on the additional extent of MPAs, the ad hoc approach achieved quantitative conservation objectives for half the ecosystems in our analysis, although all objectives were achieved or nearly achieved with the systematic approach. By defining the likely upper and lower bounds of plausible futures given different decisions about conservation investments, this work was designed to guide conservation strategies and actions in Fiji. This work is currently influencing the development of policies in Fiji to promote more strategic use of limited conservation resources.
Conservation Letters 01/2012; 5(5):387-398. · 4.08 Impact Factor
-
[show abstract]
[hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: Every action in a conservation plan has a different level of effect and consequently contributes differentially to conservation. We examined how several community-based, marine, management actions differed in their contribution to national-level conservation goals in Fiji. We held a workshop with experts on local fauna and flora and local marine management actions to translate conservation goals developed by the national government into ecosystem-specific quantitative objectives and to estimate the relative effectiveness of Fiji's community-based management actions in achieving these objectives. The national conservation objectives were to effectively manage 30% of the nation's fringing reefs, nonfringing reefs, mangroves, and intertidal ecosystems (30% objective) and 10% of other benthic ecosystems (10% objective). The experts evaluated the contribution of the various management actions toward national objectives. Scores ranged from 0 (ineffective) to 1 (maximum effectiveness) and included the following management actions: permanent closures (i.e., all extractive use of resources prohibited indefinitely) (score of 1); conditional closures harvested once per year or less as dictated by a management plan (0.50-0.95); conditional closures harvested without predetermined frequency or duration (0.10-0.85); other management actions, such as regulations on gear and species harvested (0.15-0.50). Through 3 gap analyses, we assessed whether the conservation objectives in Fiji had been achieved. Each analysis was based on a different assumption: (1) all parts of locally managed marine areas (including closures and other management) conserve species and ecosystems effectively; (2) closures conserve species and ecosystems, whereas areas outside closures, open to varying levels of resource extraction, do not; and (3) actions that allow different levels of resource extraction vary in their ability to conserve species and ecosystems. Under assumption 1, Fiji's national conservation objectives were exceeded in all marine ecosystems; under assumption 2, none of Fiji's conservation objectives were met; and under assumption 3, on the basis of the scores assigned by experts, Fiji achieved the 10% but not the 30% objectives for ecosystems. Understanding the relative contribution of management actions to achieving conservation objectives is critical in the assessment of conservation achievements at the national level, where multiple management actions will be needed to achieve national conservation objectives.
Conservation Biology 12/2011; 25(6):1155-64. · 4.69 Impact Factor
-
[show abstract]
[hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: Current levels of endangerment and historical trends of species and habitats are the main criteria used to direct conservation efforts globally. Estimates of future declines, which might indicate different priorities than past declines, have been limited by the lack of appropriate data and models. Given that much of conservation is about anticipating and responding to future threats, our inability to look forward at a global scale has been a major constraint on effective action. Here, we assess the geography and extent of projected future changes in suitable habitat for terrestrial mammals within their present ranges. We used a global earth-system model, IMAGE, coupled with fine-scale habitat suitability models and parametrized according to four global scenarios of human development. We identified the most affected countries by 2050 for each scenario, assuming that no additional conservation actions other than those described in the scenarios take place. We found that, with some exceptions, most of the countries with the largest predicted losses of suitable habitat for mammals are in Africa and the Americas. African and North American countries were also predicted to host the most species with large proportional global declines. Most of the countries we identified as future hotspots of terrestrial mammal loss have little or no overlap with the present global conservation priorities, thus confirming the need for forward-looking analyses in conservation priority setting. The expected growth in human populations and consumption in hotspots of future mammal loss mean that local conservation actions such as protected areas might not be sufficient to mitigate losses. Other policies, directed towards the root causes of biodiversity loss, are required, both in Africa and other parts of the world.
Philosophical Transactions of The Royal Society B Biological Sciences 09/2011; 366(1578):2693-702. · 6.40 Impact Factor
-
Carlo Rondinini,
Luigi Boitani,
Ana S L Rodrigues,
Thomas M Brooks, Robert L Pressey,
Piero Visconti,
Jonathan E M Baillie,
Daniele Baisero,
Mar Cabeza,
Kevin R Crooks,
Moreno Di Marco,
Kent H Redford,
Sandy A Andelman,
Michael Hoffmann,
Luigi Maiorano,
Simon N Stuart,
Kerrie A Wilson
[show abstract]
[hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: The huge conservation interest that mammals attract and the large datasets that have been collected on them have propelled a diversity of global mammal prioritization schemes, but no comprehensive global mammal conservation strategy. We highlight some of the potential discrepancies between the schemes presented in this theme issue, including: conservation of species or areas, reactive and proactive conservation approaches, conservation knowledge and action, levels of aggregation of indicators of trend and scale issues. We propose that recently collected global mammal data and many of the mammal prioritization schemes now available could be incorporated into a comprehensive global strategy for the conservation of mammals. The task of developing such a strategy should be coordinated by a super-partes, authoritative institution (e.g. the International Union for Conservation of Nature, IUCN). The strategy would facilitate funding agencies, conservation organizations and national institutions to rapidly identify a number of short-term and long-term global conservation priorities, and act complementarily to achieve them.
Philosophical Transactions of The Royal Society B Biological Sciences 09/2011; 366(1578):2722-8. · 6.40 Impact Factor
-
Hedley S Grantham,
Edward T Game,
Amanda T Lombard,
Alistair J Hobday,
Anthony J Richardson,
Lynnath E Beckley, Robert L Pressey,
Jenny A Huggett,
Janet C Coetzee,
Carl D van der Lingen,
Samantha L Petersen,
Dagmar Merkle,
Hugh P Possingham
[show abstract]
[hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: Pelagic ecosystems support a significant and vital component of the ocean's productivity and biodiversity. They are also heavily exploited and, as a result, are the focus of numerous spatial planning initiatives. Over the past decade, there has been increasing enthusiasm for protected areas as a tool for pelagic conservation, however, few have been implemented. Here we demonstrate an approach to plan protected areas that address the physical and biological dynamics typical of the pelagic realm. Specifically, we provide an example of an approach to planning protected areas that integrates pelagic and benthic conservation in the southern Benguela and Agulhas Bank ecosystems off South Africa. Our aim was to represent species of importance to fisheries and species of conservation concern within protected areas. In addition to representation, we ensured that protected areas were designed to consider pelagic dynamics, characterized from time-series data on key oceanographic processes, together with data on the abundance of small pelagic fishes. We found that, to have the highest likelihood of reaching conservation targets, protected area selection should be based on time-specific data rather than data averaged across time. More generally, we argue that innovative methods are needed to conserve ephemeral and dynamic pelagic biodiversity.
PLoS ONE 01/2011; 6(2):e16552. · 4.09 Impact Factor
-
[show abstract]
[hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: Protected areas are effective at stopping biodiversity loss, but their placement is constrained by the needs of people. Consequently protected areas are often biased toward areas that are unattractive for other human uses. Current reporting metrics that emphasise the total area protected do not account for this bias. To address this problem we propose that the distribution of protected areas be evaluated with an economic metric used to quantify inequality in income--the Gini coefficient. Using a modified version of this measure we discover that 73% of countries have inequitably protected their biodiversity and that common measures of protected area coverage do not adequately reveal this bias. Used in combination with total percentage protection, the Gini coefficient will improve the effectiveness of reporting on the growth of protected area coverage, paving the way for better representation of the world's biodiversity.
PLoS ONE 01/2011; 6(9):e24707. · 4.09 Impact Factor
-
[show abstract]
[hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: Many governments have recently gone on record promising large-scale expansions of protected areas to meet global commitments such as the Convention on Biological Diversity. As systems of protected areas are expanded to be more comprehensive, they are more likely to be implemented if planners have realistic budget estimates so that appropriate funding can be requested. Estimating financial budgets a priori must acknowledge the inherent uncertainties and assumptions associated with key parameters, so planners should recognize these uncertainties by estimating ranges of potential costs. We explore the challenge of budgeting a priori for protected area expansion in the face of uncertainty, specifically considering the future expansion of protected areas in Queensland, Australia. The government has committed to adding ∼12 million ha to the reserve system, bringing the total area protected to 20 million ha by 2020. We used Marxan to estimate the costs of potential reserve designs with data on actual land value, market value, transaction costs, and land tenure. With scenarios, we explored three sources of budget variability: size of biodiversity objectives; subdivision of properties; and legal acquisition routes varying with tenure. Depending on the assumptions made, our budget estimates ranged from $214 million to $2.9 billion. Estimates were most sensitive to assumptions made about legal acquisition routes for leasehold land. Unexpected costs (costs encountered by planners when real-world costs deviate from assumed costs) responded non-linearly to inability to subdivide and percentage purchase of private land. A financially conservative approach--one that safeguards against large cost increases while allowing for potential financial windfalls--would involve less optimistic assumptions about acquisition and subdivision to allow Marxan to avoid expensive properties where possible while meeting conservation objectives. We demonstrate how a rigorous analysis can inform discussions about the expansion of systems of protected areas, including the identification of factors that influence budget variability.
PLoS ONE 01/2011; 6(9):e25447. · 4.09 Impact Factor
-
PLoS ONE 01/2011; 6(11). · 4.09 Impact Factor
-
Laurence J McCook,
Tony Ayling,
Mike Cappo,
J Howard Choat,
Richard D Evans,
Debora M De Freitas,
Michelle Heupel,
Terry P Hughes,
Geoffrey P Jones,
Bruce Mapstone, [......],
Morena Mills,
Fergus J Molloy,
C Roland Pitcher, Robert L Pressey,
Garry R Russ,
Stephen Sutton,
Hugh Sweatman,
Renae Tobin,
David R Wachenfeld,
David H Williamson
[show abstract]
[hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: The Great Barrier Reef (GBR) provides a globally significant demonstration of the effectiveness of large-scale networks of marine reserves in contributing to integrated, adaptive management. Comprehensive review of available evidence shows major, rapid benefits of no-take areas for targeted fish and sharks, in both reef and nonreef habitats, with potential benefits for fisheries as well as biodiversity conservation. Large, mobile species like sharks benefit less than smaller, site-attached fish. Critically, reserves also appear to benefit overall ecosystem health and resilience: outbreaks of coral-eating, crown-of-thorns starfish appear less frequent on no-take reefs, which consequently have higher abundance of coral, the very foundation of reef ecosystems. Effective marine reserves require regular review of compliance: fish abundances in no-entry zones suggest that even no-take zones may be significantly depleted due to poaching. Spatial analyses comparing zoning with seabed biodiversity or dugong distributions illustrate significant benefits from application of best-practice conservation principles in data-poor situations. Increases in the marine reserve network in 2004 affected fishers, but preliminary economic analysis suggests considerable net benefits, in terms of protecting environmental and tourism values. Relative to the revenue generated by reef tourism, current expenditure on protection is minor. Recent implementation of an Outlook Report provides regular, formal review of environmental condition and management and links to policy responses, key aspects of adaptive management. Given the major threat posed by climate change, the expanded network of marine reserves provides a critical and cost-effective contribution to enhancing the resilience of the Great Barrier Reef.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 02/2010; 107(43):18278-85. · 9.68 Impact Factor
-
[show abstract]
[hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: Conservation planners represent many aspects of biodiversity by using surrogates with spatial distributions readily observed or quantified, but tests of their effectiveness have produced varied and conflicting results. We identified four factors likely to have a strong influence on the apparent effectiveness of surrogates: (1) the choice of surrogate; (2) differences among study regions, which might be large and unquantified (3) the test method, that is, how effectiveness is quantified, and (4) the test features that the surrogates are intended to represent. Analysis of an unusually rich dataset enabled us, for the first time, to disentangle these factors and to compare their individual and interacting influences. Using two data-rich regions, we estimated effectiveness using five alternative methods: two forms of incidental representation, two forms of species accumulation index and irreplaceability correlation, to assess the performance of 'forest ecosystems' and 'environmental units' as surrogates for six groups of threatened species-the test features-mammals, birds, reptiles, frogs, plants and all of these combined. Four methods tested the effectiveness of the surrogates by selecting areas for conservation of the surrogates then estimating how effective those areas were at representing test features. One method measured the spatial match between conservation priorities for surrogates and test features. For methods that selected conservation areas, we measured effectiveness using two analytical approaches: (1) when representation targets for the surrogates were achieved (incidental representation), or (2) progressively as areas were selected (species accumulation index). We estimated the spatial correlation of conservation priorities using an index known as summed irreplaceability. In general, the effectiveness of surrogates for our taxa (mostly threatened species) was low, although environmental units tended to be more effective than forest ecosystems. The surrogates were most effective for plants and mammals and least effective for frogs and reptiles. The five testing methods differed in their rankings of effectiveness of the two surrogates in relation to different groups of test features. There were differences between study areas in terms of the effectiveness of surrogates for different test feature groups. Overall, the effectiveness of the surrogates was sensitive to all four factors. This indicates the need for caution in generalizing surrogacy tests.
PLoS ONE 01/2010; 5(7):e11430. · 4.09 Impact Factor
-
Trends in Ecology & Evolution 10/2009; · 15.75 Impact Factor
-
[show abstract]
[hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: Fewer protected areas exist in the pelagic ocean than any other ecosystem on Earth. Although there is increasing support for marine protected areas (MPAs) as a tool for pelagic conservation, there have also been numerous criticisms of the ecological, logistical and economic feasibility of place-based management in the dynamic pelagic environment. Here we argue that recent advances across conservation, oceanography and fisheries science provide the evidence, tools and information to address these criticisms and confirm MPAs as defensible and feasible instruments for pelagic conservation. Debate over the efficacy of protected areas relative to other conservation measures cannot be resolved without further implementation of MPAs in the pelagic ocean.
Trends in Ecology & Evolution 04/2009; 24(7):360-9. · 15.75 Impact Factor
