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ABSTRACT: Anthropogenic climate change presents a major global health threat. However, the very provision of healthcare itself is associated with a significant environmental impact. Carbon footprinting techniques are increasingly used outside of the healthcare sector to assess greenhouse gas emissions and inform strategies to reduce them.
This study represents the first assessment of the carbon footprint of an individual specialty service to include both direct and indirect emissions.
This was a component analysis study. Activity data were collected for building energy use, travel and procurement. Established emissions factors were applied to reconcile this data to carbon dioxide equivalents (CO(2)eq) per year.
The Dorset Renal Service has a carbon footprint of 3006 tonnes CO(2)eq per annum, of which 381 tonnes CO(2)eq (13% of overall emissions) result from building energy use, 462 tonnes CO(2)eq from travel (15%) and 2163 tonnes CO(2)eq (72%) from procurement. The contributions of the major subsectors within procurement are: pharmaceuticals, 1043 tonnes CO(2)eq (35% of overall emissions); medical equipment, 753 tonnes CO(2)eq (25%). The emissions associated with healthcare episodes were estimated at 161 kg CO(2)eq per bed day for an inpatient admission and 22 kg CO(2)eq for an outpatient appointment.
These results suggest that carbon-reduction strategies focusing upon supply chain emissions are likely to yield the greatest benefits. Sustainable waste management and strategies to reduce emissions associated with building energy use and travel will also be important. A transformation in the way that clinical care is delivered is required, such that lower carbon clinical pathways, treatments and technologies are embraced. The estimations of greenhouse gas emissions associated with outpatient appointments and inpatient stays calculated here may facilitate modelling of the emissions of alternative pathways of care.
QJM: monthly journal of the Association of Physicians 12/2010; 103(12):965-75. · 2.33 Impact Factor
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M W Cooke
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ABSTRACT: Tetanus is a potentially fatal disease that occurs after contamination of a wound with Clostridium tetani spores. The introduction of comprehensive infant vaccination programmes in the 1960s dramatically reduced the incidence of tetanus in the UK. To achieve comprehensive protection against tetanus, the World Health Organization guidelines recommend the administration of the five-dose childhood immunisation regimen and an additional sixth dose, after approximately 10 years, to ensure long-lasting immunity. To supplement these measures, tetanus prophylaxis with human tetanus immunoglobulin is considered essential for incompletely immunised individuals presenting with dirty wounds. However, identifying those individuals who are not fully immunised has, until recently, been problematical. The use of a new rapid, point-of-care immunoassay to assess tetanus immune status may facilitate the optimal management of patients with wounds.
Emergency Medicine Journal 12/2009; 26(12):845-8. · 1.44 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: To evaluate the effectiveness of multifactorial assessment and intervention programmes to prevent falls and injuries among older adults recruited to trials in primary care, community, or emergency care settings.
Systematic review of randomised and quasi-randomised controlled trials, and meta-analysis.
Six electronic databases (Medline, Embase, CENTRAL, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Social Science Citation Index) to 22 March 2007, reference lists of included studies, and previous reviews.
Eligible studies were randomised or quasi-randomised trials that evaluated interventions to prevent falls that were based in emergency departments, primary care, or the community that assessed multiple risk factors for falling and provided or arranged for treatments to address these risk factors.
Outcomes were number of fallers, fall related injuries, fall rate, death, admission to hospital, contacts with health services, move to institutional care, physical activity, and quality of life. Methodological quality assessment included allocation concealment, blinding, losses and exclusions, intention to treat analysis, and reliability of outcome measurement.
19 studies, of variable methodological quality, were included. The combined risk ratio for the number of fallers during follow-up among 18 trials was 0.91 (95% confidence interval 0.82 to 1.02) and for fall related injuries (eight trials) was 0.90 (0.68 to 1.20). No differences were found in admissions to hospital, emergency department attendance, death, or move to institutional care. Subgroup analyses found no evidence of different effects between interventions in different locations, populations selected for high risk of falls or unselected, and multidisciplinary teams including a doctor, but interventions that actively provide treatments may be more effective than those that provide only knowledge and referral.
Evidence that multifactorial fall prevention programmes in primary care, community, or emergency care settings are effective in reducing the number of fallers or fall related injuries is limited. Data were insufficient to assess fall and injury rates.
BMJ (Clinical research ed.). 02/2008; 336(7636):130-3.
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Archives of Disease in Childhood 02/2007; 92(1):6-8. · 2.88 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The optimal management for severe sprains (Grades II and III) of the lateral ligament complex of the ankle is unclear. The aims of this randomised controlled trial are to estimate (1) the clinical effectiveness of three methods of providing mechanical support to the ankle (below knee cast, Aircast brace and Bledsoe boot) in comparison to Tubigrip, and (2) to compare the cost of each strategy, including subsequent health care costs.
Six hundred and fifty people with a diagnosis of severe sprain are being identified through emergency departments. The study has been designed to complement routine practice in the emergency setting. Outcomes are recovery of mobility (primary outcome) and usual activity, residual symptoms and need for further medical, rehabilitation or surgical treatment. Parallel economic and qualitative studies are being conducted to aid interpretation of the results and to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of the interventions.
This paper highlights the design, methods and operational aspects of a clinical trial of acute injury management in the emergency department.
BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders 02/2005; 6:1. · 1.58 Impact Factor
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Emergency Medicine Journal 10/2004; 21(5):575-6. · 1.44 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The NHS Plan has a target that no patient should spend longer than 4 hours in Accident and Emergency (A & E) by the end of 2004. The aim of this study is to describe the attendance characteristics of patients spending less than and more than 4 hours total time in A & E.
Data were collected from 10 A & E departments in the West Midlands NHS region for the period 1 April 2001 to 31 March 2002. Patients were split into three groups; those spending less than 4 hours, between 4 and 8 hours and over 8 hours in A & E. The groups were compared in terms of their attendance characteristics, these being demography, temporal patterns, arrival mode and disposal. The data were also entered into a multinomial logistic regression using SPSS.
Overall, 83.0 per cent (range 76.7 - 94.0 per cent) of patients spent less than 4 hours in A & E ; 3.6% per cent (range 0.3-8.6 per cent) spent longer than 8 hours in A & E. The risk factors for spending over 4 hours in A & E were requiring admission, arriving by ambulance, arriving during the night, increasing age and higher levels of deprivation. Being admitted had the greatest effect on time spent in A & E, with a patient being 2.64 times more likely to spend 4-8 hours and 4.84 times more likely to spend over 8 hours in the department.
This study points to admission and service provision at night as factors leading to long periods in A & E. However, these results can only act as a guide as the problems are different in different Trusts and each should analyse their problem before taking action.
Journal of Public Health 06/2004; 26(2):172-6. · 2.06 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: To determine current consultant practice in larger UK emergency departments in the management of severe ankle sprains.
Questionnaire study to all UK emergency departments seeing more than 50 000 new patients per year.
70% response rate. Most popular treatment was ice, elevation, Tubigrip, and exercise, each of which was reported as used in most cases by over 70% of respondents. Crutches, early weight bearing, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs were each reported as used in most cases at over half of responding departments. Physiotherapy was usually only used in selected cases. Rest was usually advised for one to three days (35%). Follow up was only recommended for selected patients.
The results of this survey suggest that there is considerable variation in some aspects of the clinical approach (including drug treatment, walking aids, periods of rest) taken to the management of severe ankle sprains in the UK, although in some areas (for example, not routinely immobilising, early weight bearing as pain permits, use of physiotherapy, use of rest, ice, and elevation) there was concordance.
Emergency Medicine Journal 12/2003; 20(6):505-7. · 1.44 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: To assess the potential for patients to be assessed and discharged directly from triage in an emergency department (ED).
Modelling was undertaken by collection of retrospective electronic data from four different EDs. Serial removal of groups was undertaken using data from coding systems related to patients details of admission/treatment/investigations and procedure undertaken. The final group left were analysed for ambulance usage, prior primary care consultation, and age group.
29.4% patients were discharged after clinical assessment but without any specific treatment or investigation. It was seen that of the patients who can be considered for discharge from triage, 15.5% were brought to the ED by ambulance, 3.5% were patients who had already consulted primary care, and 11% were children.
This study suggests that a large percentage of patients seen in EDs may not require the extra facilities of that department. There is potential for a large number to be discharged within a few minutes of arrival if appropriate assessment skills are available at first contact. This may require more senior assessment than is currently used. This study has not assessed safety of such a system or the times of day when it is best deployed.
Emergency Medicine Journal 04/2003; 20(2):131-3. · 1.44 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Observation and assessment wards allow patients to be observed on a short-term basis and permit patient monitoring and/or treatment for an initial 24-48 hour period. They should permit concentration of emergency activity and resources in one area, and so improve efficiency and minimise disruption to other hospital services. These types of ward go under a variety of names, including observation, assessment, and admission wards. This review aims to evaluate the current literature and discuss assessment/admission ward functionality in terms of organisation, admission criteria, special patient care, and cost effectiveness.
Search of the literature using the Medline and BIDS databases, combined with searches of web based resources. Critical assessment of the literature and the data therein is presented.
The advantages and disadvantages of the use of assessment/admission wards were assessed from the current literature. Most articles suggest that these wards improve patient satisfaction, are safe, decrease the length of stay, provide earlier senior involvement, reduce unnecessary admissions, and may be particularly useful in certain diagnostic groups. A number of studies summarise their organisational structure and have shown that strong management, staffing, organisation, size, and location are important factors for efficient running. There is wide variation in the recommended size of these wards. Observation wards may produce cost savings largely relating to the length of stay in such a unit.
All types of assessment/admission wards seem to have advantages over traditional admission to a general hospital ward. A successful ward needs proactive management and organisation, senior staff involvement, and access to diagnostics and is dependent on a clear set of policies in terms of admission and care. Many diagnostic groups benefit from this type of unit, excluding those who will inevitably need longer admission. Vigorous financial studies have yet to be undertaken in the UK. Definitions of observation, assessment, and admission ward are suggested.
Emergency Medicine Journal 04/2003; 20(2):138-42. · 1.44 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: To decrease waiting times within accident and emergency (A&E) departments, various initiatives have been suggested including the use of a separate stream of care for minor injuries ("fast track"). This study aimed to assess whether a separate stream of minor injuries care in a UK A&E department decreases the waiting time, without delaying the care of those with more serious injury.
A doctor saw any ambulant patients with injuries not requiring an examination couch or an urgent intervention. Any patients requiring further treatment were returned to the sub-wait area until a nurse could see them in another cubicle.
Data were retrospectively extracted from the routine hospital information systems for all patients attending the A&E department for five weeks before the institution of the separate stream system and for five weeks after.
13 918 new patients were seen during the 10 week study period; 7117 (51.1%) in the first five week period and 6801 (49.9%) in the second five week period when a separate stream was operational. Recorded time to see a doctor ranged from 0-850 minutes. Comparison of the two five week periods demonstrated that the proportion of patients waiting less than 30 and less than 60 minutes both improved (p<0.0001). The relative risk of waiting more than one hour decreased by 32%. The improvements in waiting times were not at the expense of patients with more urgent needs.
The introduction of a separate stream for minor injuries can produce an improvement in the number of trauma patients waiting over an hour of about 30%. If this is associated with an increase in consultant presence on the shop floor it may be possible to achieve a 50% improvement. It is recommended that departments use a separate stream for minor injuries to decrease the number of patients enduring long waits in A&E departments.
Emergency Medicine Journal 01/2002; 19(1):28-30. · 1.44 Impact Factor
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BMJ 11/2001; 323(7316):781-2. · 14.09 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Violence against A&E staff is increasing, and national initiatives have been implemented to counter the threat to staff. The aim of this paper is to determine the risks to staff of working in A&E and to determine methods of risk-reduction, using searches of literature and web-based resources. There is also critical appraisal of the data therein.
Accident and Emergency Nursing 05/2001; 9(2):77-85.
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ABSTRACT: Questionnaires are commonly sent to accident and emergency (A&E) departments to determine common practice and are often extrapolated to best practice.
To determine if questionnaire based studies have a defined population of A&E departments and whether studies are reproducible.
All questionnaires in the Journal of Accident and Emergency Medicine were reviewed and assessed for inclusion criteria, departments studied and study design.
30 questionnaires were detected, 22 were postal, six telephone and two did not state method of contact. Sample sizes ranged from 15 to 740 and inclusion of A&E departments was highly variable according to geographical area, size of department or consultant status. Seventeen (54.8%) did not state the source of A&E department listings. Response rates ranged from 55-100%. Only three studies undertook subset analysis according to either size or locality.
Questionnaire of studies A&E departments have poor methodology descriptions, which means that many are not reproducible. Inclusion criteria are highly variable and failure to analyse important subsets may mean that individual departments cannot apply recommendations. Questionnaire studies relating to A&E do not use a consistent well defined population of A&E departments. Information in the studies is usually inadequate to allow them to be repeated.
Journal of accident & emergency medicine 10/2000; 17(5):355-6.
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ABSTRACT: Many systems of telephone triage are being developed (including NHS Direct, general practitioner out of hours centres, ambulance services). These rely on the ability to determine key facts from the caller. Level of consciousness is an important indicator after head injury but also an indicator of severe illness.
To determine the general public's understanding of the term unconscious.
A total of 700 people were asked one of seven questions relating to their understanding of the term unconscious. All participants were adults who could speak sufficient English to give a history to a nurse.
Correct understanding of the term unconscious varied from 46.5% to 87.0% for varying parameters. Those with English as their first language had a better understanding (p<0.01) and there was a significant variation with ethnicity (p<0.05).
Understanding of the term unconscious is poor and worse in those for whom English is not a first language. Decision making should not rely on the interpretation of questions using technical terms such as unconscious, which may have a different meaning between professional and lay people.
Journal of accident & emergency medicine 03/2000; 17(2):119-21.
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ABSTRACT: To determine the reasons for choosing between primary care out of hours centres and accident and emergency (A&E) departments for patients with primary care problems.
Interviews using a semistructured approach of samples of patients attending A&E departments and general practitioner (GP) out of hours centres for primary care problems.
102 patient interviews were undertaken. Sixty two per cent of A&E attenders were unemployed compared with 41% of out of hours attenders. White people were more likely to attend A&E departments and Asians the out of hours centre (p<0.01) and unemployed were more likely to attend A&E departments (70% v 30%). Some 46.3% of A&E department attenders had not contacted their GP before attending; 81.3% of first time users of the out of hours centre found out about it on the day of interview. Those attending A&E thought waiting times at the out of hours centre would be 6.3 hours (median) compared with a median perceived time of 2.9 hours by those actually attending the out of hours centre. Actual time was actually much less.
Once patients have used the GP out of hours centre they are more likely to use it again. Education should be targeted at young adults, the unemployed and white people. Patients should be encouraged to contact their GP before A&E department attendance for non-life threatening conditions. Waiting time perception may be an important reason for choice of service.
Journal of accident & emergency medicine 01/2000; 17(1):18-21.
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ABSTRACT: To determine whether there were any changes in attendance at accident and emergency departments that could be related to international football matches (Euro96 tournament).
Fourteen accident and emergency departments (seven adjacent to and seven distant from a Euro96 venue) provided their daily attendance figures for a nine week period: three weeks before, during, and after the tournament. The relation between daily attendance rates and Euro96 football matches was assessed using a generalised linear model and analysis of variance. The model took into account underlying trends in attendance rates including day of the week.
The 14 hospitals contributed 172 366 attendances (mean number of daily attendances 195). No association was shown between the number of attendances at accident and emergency departments and the day of the football match, whether the departments were near to or distant from stadia or the occurrence of a home nation match. The only observed independent predictors of variation were day of the week and week of the year. Attendance rates were significantly higher on Sunday and/or Monday; Monday was about 9% busier than the daily average. Increasing attendance was observed over time for 86% of the hospitals.
Large sports tournaments do not increase the number of patients attending accident and emergency departments. Special measures are not required for major sporting events over and above the capacity of an accident and emergency department to increase its throughput on other days.
British Journal of Sports Medicine 11/1999; 33(5):333-5. · 4.14 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: To determine the warning time given to accident and emergency (A&E) departments by the ambulance service before arrival of a critically ill or injured patient. To determine if this could be increased by ambulance personnel alerting within five minutes of arrival at scene.
Use of computerised ambulance control room data to find key times in process of attending a critically ill or injured patient. Modelling was undertaken with a scenario of the first responder alerting the A&E department five minutes after arrival on scene.
The average alert warning time was 7 min (range 1-15 min). Mean time on scene was 22 min (range 4-59 min). In trauma patients alone, the average alert time was 7 min, range 2-15 min, with an average on scene time of 23 min, range 4-53 min. There was a potential earlier alert time averaging 25 min (SD 18.6, range 2-59 min) if the alert call was made five minutes after arrival on scene.
A&E departments could be alerted much earlier by the ambulance service. This would allow staff to be assembled and preparations to be made. Disadvantages may be an increased "alert rate" and wastage of staff time while waiting the ambulance arrival.
Journal of accident & emergency medicine 10/1999; 16(5):339-41.
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ABSTRACT: The Manchester triage system (MTS) is now widely used in UK accident and emergency (A&E) departments. No clinical outcome studies have yet been published to validate the system. Safety of triage systems is related to the ability to detect the critically ill, which has to be balanced with resource implications of overtriage.
To determine whether the MTS can reliably detect those subsequently needing admission to critical care areas.
Analysis of emergency admissions to critical care areas and comparison with original A&E triage code by a nurse using the MTS at time of presentation. Retrospective coding of all cases according to the MTS by experts and case analysis to determine whether any non-urgent coding was due to the system or to incorrect coding.
Sixty one (67%) of the patients admitted to a critical care area were given triage category 1 or 2 (that is, to be seen within 10 minutes of arrival). Eighteen cases given lower priority were due to incorrect coding by the triage nurse. Six cases were correctly coded by the MTS, of which five deteriorated after arrival in the A&E department. Only one case was critically ill on arrival and yet was coded as able to wait for up to one hour.
The MTS is a sensitive tool for detecting those who subsequently need critical care and are ill on arrival in the A&E department. It did fail to detect some whom deteriorated after arrival in A&E. Most errors were due to training problems rather than the system of triage. Analysis of critically ill patients allows easy audit of sensitivity of the MTS but cannot be used to calculate specificity.
Journal of accident & emergency medicine 06/1999; 16(3):179-81.
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Journal of accident & emergency medicine 02/1999; 16(1):74-5.
