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ABSTRACT: Piglet birth weight and litter uniformity are important for piglet survival. Insulin-stimulating sow diets before mating may improve subsequent piglet birth weights and litter uniformity, but the physiological mechanisms involved are not clear. This study evaluated effects of different levels of insulin-stimulating feed components (dextrose plus starch; fed twice daily) during the weaning-to-estrus interval (WEI) on plasma insulin and IGF-1 concentrations, and on follicle development and subsequent luteal, fetal and placental development and uniformity at days 42 to 43 of pregnancy. During WEI, multiparous sows were isocalorically fed diets supplemented with 375 g/day dextrose plus 375 g/day corn starch (INS-H), with 172 g/day dextrose plus 172 g/day corn starch and 144 g/day animal fat (INS-L), or with 263 g/day animal fat (CON). Jugular vein catheters were inserted through the ear vein at 1.5 days before weaning to asses plasma insulin and IGF-1 concentrations. After estrus, all sows received a standard gestation diet until slaughter at days 42 to 43 of pregnancy. The dextrose plus starch-diets enhanced the postprandial insulin response in a dose-dependent manner (e.g. at day 2 insulin area under the curve was 4516 μU/444 min for CON, 8197 μU/444 min for INS-L and 10 894 μU/444 min for INS-H; s.e.m. = 694; P < 0.001), but did not affect plasma IGF-1 concentrations during the first 3 days of WEI. Follicle development and subsequent luteal, fetal and placental development and uniformity were not affected by the dietary treatments, nor related to plasma insulin and IGF-1 concentrations during WEI. Pre-weaning plasma insulin and IGF-1 concentrations were negatively related to sow body condition loss during lactation, but were not related to subsequent reproduction characteristics. This study shows that dietary dextrose plus starch are effective in stimulating insulin secretion (both postprandial peak and long-term concentration), but not IGF-1 secretion during the first 3 days after weaning in multiparous sows. The extreme insulin-stimulating diets during WEI did, however, not improve follicle development, or subsequent development and uniformity of fetuses and placentas in these high-prolific sows (27.0 ± 0.6 ovulations; 18.6 ± 0.6 vital fetuses).
animal 04/2013; · 1.74 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Little is known about physiological responses of early- versus late-hatching chicks to early posthatch conditions in broiler practice. We investigated effects of hatching time on perinatal broiler physiology in 2 hatching systems, differing in conditions: a conventional hatcher, where chicks are deprived of feed and water between hatching and the moment of chick pulling (d E21.5), and a patio system, in which the hatching and brooding phase are combined, and chicks have immediate posthatch feed and water access. Climate conditions in patio also differ with about 3°C lower temperature and 20% lower RH compared with conventional hatchers. At E18, fertile eggs were transferred to either a hatcher or the patio until the end of incubation. From each system, 50 newly hatched chicks were collected at 3 hatching times: at 468 h (early), 483 h (midterm), and 498 h (late) of incubation, of which 25 chicks were decapitated for analyses of physiological parameters. The other 25 chicks were returned to the hatching system for analyses after 515 h of incubation (E21.5). At hatch, weights of the heart, lungs, stomach, and intestine increased with hatching time, concurrent with a decrease in residual yolk weight, regardless of hatching system, and indicating that later hatching chicks are more matured. Weights of the heart, liver, stomach, and intestines were lower in hatcher than in patio chicks. Between hatch and E21.5, residual yolk weight decreased, whereas organ weights increased in both fasted hatcher and fed patio chicks, but at a higher rate in the latter. At E21.5, plasma glucose and triiodothyronine had increased with time after hatch in patio chicks, whereas levels were similar among hatching times and lower in hatcher chicks. Early feed and water access seems to enable early hatching chicks to compensate for their apparent disadvantage in development at hatching, whereas chicks subjected to fasting show metabolic adaptations to preserve nutrients. Chick physiology at chick pulling time was shown to vary with time after hatching and posthatch conditions, especially feed access.
Poultry Science 04/2013; 92(4):1050-61. · 1.73 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Piglet birth weight and litter uniformity were studied in sows of different parities and crossbred lines in relation to 1) the weaning-to-pregnancy interval (WPI); and 2) sow body condition changes (in BW and backfat thickness) during lactation and gestation in sows with a short WPI (≤ 7d). At the IPG research farm, individual piglet birth weights and sow body condition (BW and backfat thickness at farrowing and weaning) were measured of 949 TOPIGS20 and 889 TOPIGS40 sows with > 4 total born piglets, inseminated between 2003 and 2011. In all analyses, mean piglet birth weight and birth weight SD and CV were corrected for total number born. Total number born was higher in sows with a WPI of 8 to 21d (+ 1.2 piglets; n = 72) and >21d (+ 0.7 piglets; n = 182) compared with sows with a WPI ≤ 7d (P < 0.01; n = 1,584). Mean piglet birth weight was not affected by WPI. Birth weight SD (- 23 g) and CV (- 1.7%) were lower in sows with a WPI > 21d compared with sows with a WPI ≤ 7d (P < 0.01). Effects of WPI were independent of sow parity. Effects of body condition changes in sows with a WPI ≤ 7d were studied separately in TOPIGS20 sows inseminated between 2006 and 2011 (n = 808) and in TOPIGS40 sows inseminated between 2003 and 2008 (n = 747). Sow body condition loss during lactation was not related with subsequent total number born or mean piglet birth weight. Only in TOPIGS20 sows, more BW loss during lactation was related with higher subsequent birth weight SD (β = 0.83 g/kg, P < 0.01; β = 1.62 g/%, P < 0.01), and more backfat loss during lactation was related with higher subsequent birth weight SD (β = 5.11 g/mm, P < 0.01) and CV (β = 0.36 %/mm, P < 0.01), independent of sow parity. Sow BW increase during gestation was negatively related with total number born (TOPIGS20: β = - 0.06 and - 0.05 piglet/kg BW increase for parity 2 (P < 0.01) and 3 and 4 ( P < 0.01), respectively; TOPIGS40: β = - 0.04 piglet/kg BW increase (P < 0.01) independent of sow parity). Sow BW increase during gestation was positively related with birth weight SD (TOPIGS20: β = 0.63 g/kg BW increase (P = 0.01) independent of sow parity). Sow body condition increase during gestation was not related with mean piglet birth weight. To conclude, this study shows that litter uniformity is compromised by severe sow body condition loss during lactation and improved in sows with a prolonged WPI. These effects are likely related with (insufficient) restoration of follicle development.
Journal of Animal Science 03/2013; · 2.10 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Two experiments were conducted to study the interaction between breeder age and egg size on the energy utilization (experiment 1) and heat production (experiment 2) of broiler embryos. In experiment 1, a total of 4,800 Ross-308 hatching eggs from 2 breeder ages (29 and 53 wk of age, or young and old) and, within each age, 2 egg sizes (57 to 61 g and 66 to 70 g, or small and large) were used. In experiment 2, a total of 240 Ross-308 hatching eggs from 2 breeder flocks at 29 (young) and 53 (old) wk of age, and which were selected from the same egg weight range (58 to 61 g), were tested in 2 replicate chambers. In experiment 1, it was shown that the amount of yolk relative to albumen was higher in the old flock eggs, and this effect was more pronounced in the large eggs. The old flock eggs, especially the larger egg size, contained more energy as a result of a greater yolk size. Energy utilization of the embryos was positively related to yolk size and the amount of energy transferred to yolk-free body (YFB) was largely determined by the available egg energy. The efficiency of converting egg energy into chick body energy (E(YFB)) was equal for both egg sizes and both breeder age groups. Chick YFB weight of young and old flock eggs was equal. However, dry YFB weight of chicks from old flock eggs was higher than in chicks from young flock eggs, which was associated with more protein and fat content and thus more energy accumulated into YFB. As a consequence, embryos derived from old flock eggs produced more heat from d 16 of incubation onward than those of the young flock eggs. In conclusion, the higher energy deposition into chick YFB of old flock eggs, leading to higher embryonic heat production, is the result of a higher amount of available energy in the egg and is not due to changes in E(YFB).
Poultry Science 02/2013; 92(2):474-82. · 1.73 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The quality of day old chicks is crucial for profitable broiler production, but a difficult trait to define. In research, both qualitative and quantitative measures are used with variable predictive value for subsequent performance. In hatchery practice, chick quality is judged on a binomial scale, as chicks are divided into first grade (Q1-saleable) and second grade (Q2) chicks right after hatch. Incidences and reasons for classifying chicks as Q2, and potential of these chicks for survival and post-hatch performance have hardly been investigated, but may provide information for flock performance. We conducted an experiment to investigate (1) the quality of a broiler flock and the relation with post-hatch flock performance based on a qualitative score (Pasgar©score) of Q1 chicks and based on the incidence of Q2 chicks and (2) the reasons for classifying chicks as Q2, and the potential of these chicks for survival and post-hatch growth. The performance was followed of Q1 and Q2 chicks obtained from two breeder flocks that hatched in two different hatching systems (a traditional hatcher or a combined hatching and brooding system, named Patio). Eggs were incubated until embryo day 18, when they were transferred to one of the two hatching systems. At embryo day 21/post-hatch day 0, all chicks from the hatcher (including Q2 chicks) were brought to Patio, where the hatchery manager marked the Q2 chicks from both flocks and hatching systems and registered apparent reasons for classifying these chicks as Q2. Chick quality was assessed of 100 Q1 chicks from each flock and hatching system. Weights of all chicks were determined at days 0, 7, 21 and 42. There were no correlations between mean Pasgar©score and post-hatch growth or mortality, and suboptimal navel quality was the only quality trait associated with lower post-hatch growth. Growth was clearly affected by breeder flock and hatching system, which could not be linked to mean Pasgar©score or incidence of Q2 chicks. Q2 chicks showed lower post-hatch growth compared to Q1 chicks but effects on flock performance at slaughter weight were limited because early mortality in Q2 chicks was high (62.50% at 7 days). We concluded that chick qualitative scores and the incidence of Q2 chicks may be informative for the quality of incubation, but are not predictive for post-hatch flock performance. Culling Q2 chicks after hatch is well-founded in terms of both animal welfare and profitability.
animal 04/2012; 6(10):1677-83. · 1.74 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: This study aimed to investigate whether suboptimal incubation (SI) temperature in weeks 1 and 3 of layer embryo incubation affects their development and post-hatch adaptive capacity during infectious challenges, by using Eimeria as a model infection under normal and immediately after more challenging environmental conditions of 72 h heat exposure. Eggs (n = 160 per treatment) were incubated at optimal (OI = 37.8°C continuously) or suboptimal eggshell temperature (36.7°C, 37.8°C and 38.9°C in weeks 1, 2 and 3, respectively). At day 33 of age, half the chickens of each incubation treatment were exposed to 72 h heat (35°C), whereas the other half remained under control conditions (21°C). At day 36 of age, all chickens were inoculated with 1 ml of a phosphate buffer saline solution containing 25 000 sporulated Eimeria acervulina oocysts/ml. The adaptive response to E. acervulina was measured by BW gain and FI from days 0 to 3 post infection (p.i.), days 3 to 5 p.i. and days 5 to 7 p.i., and by oocyst production (days 4 and 7 p.i.) and lesion scores in the duodenum (day 3, 4 and 7 p.i.). Our results demonstrated that SI temperatures in weeks 1 and 3 of incubation resulted in a reduction in yolk-free BW, chick length and navel condition. Moreover, SI temperature appeared to reduce the adaptive capacity to E. acervulina. This was demonstrated by tendencies to lower FI (P = 0.07) and BW gain (P = 0.08), more duodenal lesions (P = 0.09) and higher oocyst production (P = 0.02) after inoculation of E. acervulina. Higher lesion scores and faecal oocyst numbers were especially found when suboptimal incubation was combined with heat exposure preceding the infection. In conclusion, SI layer chickens tend to be less able to cope with an infectious challenge post hatch.
animal 01/2012; 6(1):137-44. · 1.74 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Chicken eggs are commonly incubated for 17 to 18 d in setters, after which they are transferred to the hatchery for the last 3 to 4 d of incubation. Whereas eggs are positioned vertically with the air cell up during the first incubation phase, they are placed horizontally for the hatching phase. It is unknown whether egg position in the last phase of incubation is of importance to the hatching process and chick quality. An experiment was conducted to investigate effects of egg position in the last 4 d of incubation on the hatching process and chick quality. The experiment consisted of 2 identical trials, where 300 fertile eggs per trial were transferred to a hatching cabinet at embryo day 17. Eggs were placed in 1 of 3 positions: with the air cell up (ACU), with the air cell down, or horizontally (HOR). Starting at embryo day 18, the following data were collected for each egg at 3-h intervals: time of internal pipping (IP), external pipping (EP), hatching, and position of EP. Approximately 6 h after hatch, BW, chick length, and chick quality based on the Pasgar score, were determined for each chick. In addition, residual yolk weight and yolk-free body mass were determined in every fourth chick that hatched. Time of IP was not affected by egg position, but EP occurred 5 h later in ACU eggs, and thus, the IP-EP interval was increased by 3 to 4 h in this group compared with the other egg positions. Hatching occurred 1 to 2 h earlier in HOR eggs than in the other 2 positions. Body weight, yolk weight, and yolk-free body mass were not affected by egg position. Chick length was 1 to 2 mm shorter and the Pasgar score was slightly lower in air cell-down eggs compared with ACU and HOR eggs, mainly caused by a high incidence of poor navel quality, red hocks, and red beaks. Hatchability was not affected by egg position. We concluded that egg position in the last phase of incubation affects the duration of the hatching process, and has small effects on chick quality.
Poultry Science 10/2011; 90(10):2342-7. · 1.73 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Effects of different carbohydrate sources on plasma glucose, insulin and insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) levels were compared to subsequently be able to study effects of insulin-stimulating diets on follicle development in sows. The following feed components were tested in 12 sows during six consecutive test periods of 9.5 days: dextrose (DEX), sucrose (SUC), lactose (LAC), dextrose plus lactose (DL), sucrose plus lactose (SL), dextrose plus sugarbeet pulp (DSBP) and control (CON). On day 2, 5 and 9 of each test period, plasma glucose (only at day 9), insulin and IGF-I profiles were determined. Despite similar glucose profiles for all diets, the postprandial insulin response was higher for DL and SL compared with CON and LAC; the other diets were intermediate. Plasma IGF-I levels were higher in CON, LAC and SL compared with DSBP, but differences were only marginal. It was concluded that dextrose and sucrose have the potential to stimulate fast and high insulin peaks, especially when combined with additional lactose. Despite the high dextrose in the DSBP diet, the insulin response was flattened, probably due to the viscosity of sugarbeet pulp. The results show that modulation of plasma insulin levels by dietary carbohydrates seems possible in anabolic sows, but IGF-I levels are less easily modified.
J Anim Physiol a Anim Nutr 06/2011; 96(3):494-505. · 0.86 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: This study evaluated the influence of incubation conditions on the developmental and physiological status of birds in the perinatal period, which spans the end of incubation until the early posthatch period. Embryos were incubated at a normal (37.8°C) or high (38.9°C) eggshell temperature (EST) and a low (17%), normal (21%), or high (25%) O(2) concentration from d 7 until 19 of incubation. After d 19 of incubation, EST was maintained, but O(2) concentrations were 21% for all embryos. Body and organ weights, and hepatic glycogen levels were measured at d 18 of incubation and at 12 and 48 h after emergence from the eggshell. In addition, blood metabolites were measured at 12 and 48 h after emergence from the eggshell. Embryos incubated at a high EST and low O(2) concentration had the highest mortality in the last week of incubation, which may be related to their low yolk-free body mass (YFBM) or a reduced nutrient availability for hatching (i.e., hepatic glycogen). High EST, compared with normal EST, decreased YFBM. This may be due to the shorter incubation duration of 8 h, the lower weight of supply organs (i.e., heart and lung), or a lack of glucose precursors. Because of this lack of glucose precursors, embryos incubated at high EST may have used proteins for energy production instead of for body development at the end of incubation. The YFBM at d 18 of incubation increased with an increase in O(2) concentration. However, differences between the normal and high O(2) concentration disappeared at 12 and 48 h after emergence, possibly because the high O(2) concentration had difficulties adapting to lower O(2) concentrations in the perinatal period. Blood metabolites and hepatic glycogen were comparable among O(2) concentrations, indicating that the physiological status at hatch may be related to the environment that the embryo experienced during the hatching process. In conclusion, EST and O(2) concentration differentially influence the developmental and physiological status of broilers during the perinatal period.
Poultry Science 06/2011; 90(6):1257-66. · 1.73 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: A multilevel housing system for broilers was developed, named Patio (Vencomatic BV, Eersel, the Netherlands), in which the hatching and brooding phase are combined. In a Patio system, climate conditions differ from those provided in the hatchers currently in use. We compared the physiology of broilers hatched in a hatcher or in a Patio system, and included the effects of hatching time. Eggs from 1 breeder flock were incubated until embryonic d 18 in a setter and subsequently placed in a hatcher or the Patio until the end of incubation. From each hatching system, 154 chicks were collected per hatching time, at 465 h (early), 480 h (midterm), and 493 h (late) of incubation, from which 24 chicks/group were decapitated for analyses of blood plasma and organ weights. The remaining 130 chicks in each group from both systems were individually labeled and placed together in the Patio system. All chicks were given access to feed and water directly after hatch and were housed up to d 45 to monitor growth. From embryonic d 18 until the end of incubation, average ambient temperature and RH were 38.1°C and 50.8% in the hatcher and 35.2°C and 29.7% in the Patio system. Glucose and corticosterone were slightly higher in hatcher chicks, whereas organ weights were not affected by the hatching system. Although hatchling weights were lower in hatchery chicks, growth from d 0 to 45 was not affected by the hatching system. In both systems, glucose increased with hatching time, whereas lactate and triiodothyronine levels decreased. Yolk weights decreased with hatching time, whereas absolute and relative weights of the yolk-free body, intestines, stomach, lungs, and heart increased, indicating more advanced maturation of organs. Growth up to d 21 was depressed in chicks in the late group, which was possibly related to lower thyroid hormone levels at hatching. We conclude that the hatching system had minor effects on hatchling physiology and that posthatch growth and livability were not affected. Because hatching time affected broiler physiology, it seems important to take hatching time into account in future studies related to hatchling physiology.
Poultry Science 06/2011; 90(6):1267-75. · 1.73 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: To get more insight in how insulin secretion patterns and corresponding insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) levels are related to luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion, follicle development and ovulation, 32 multiparous sows were fed either a dextrose plus lactose-containing diet at 4 h intervals (DL; each 150 g/day) or an isocaloric control diet at 12 h intervals (CTRL; containing soybean oil) during the weaning-to-ovulation interval (WOI). Insulin parameters (basal, peak levels and mean insulin) and IGF-1 levels during the WOI were similar for both treatments, but the insulin secretion pattern differed (related with feeding frequency and meal sizes). Oestrus and ovulation characteristics were not influenced by treatment. The LH surge was higher in CTRL compared with DL sows (3.73 vs 3.00 ng/ml; p = 0.03). Average diameter (6.5 vs 6.1 mm; p = 0.08) and uniformity (CV: 11 vs 15%, p = 0.02) of follicles ≥3 mm at day 4 after weaning was higher in CTRL compared with DL sows. Basal insulin levels were positively related with follicle diameter at ovulation (β = 0.05 mm/(μU/ml); p = 0.04) and negatively related with LH surge level (β = -0.07 (ng/ml)/(μU/ml); p = 0.01). Insulin area under the curve (AUC) (β = 0.037 (ng/ml)/1000 μU; p = 0.02) and IGF-1 levels (β = 0.002 (ng/ml)/(ng/ml); p < 0.01) were positively related to basal LH level around the LH surge. From these data, we conclude that insulin and IGF-1 levels during the WOI are related to LH secretion and follicle development. Not only the absolute level of insulin seems important, but also the pattern within a day in which insulin is secreted seems to affect LH secretion and development of pre-ovulatory follicles.
Reproduction in Domestic Animals 05/2011; 47(1):53-61. · 1.36 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Insulin-stimulating sow diets before mating improve piglet uniformity. We studied effects of nutritionally induced differences in insulin levels during the weaning-to-ovulation interval (WOI) on luteal development, progesterone secretion and pre-implantation conceptus development and uniformity (d10). To create insulin contrasts, 32 multiparous sows were fed either a dextrose plus lactose containing diet (each 150 g/day) at 4 h intervals (DL treatment) or an isocalorically control diet (containing soybean oil) at 12 h intervals (CTRL treatment) during the WOI. After ovulation, all sows received a standard gestation diet at 12 h intervals. Ovulation rate, plasma progesterone levels, pregnancy rate and embryo survival did not differ between treatments. CTRL sows had a higher total luteal weight (11.2 vs 9.7 g; p = 0.03) than DL sows. Conceptus diameter at d10 of pregnancy tended to be larger in CTRL sows (diameter: 7.1 vs 6.4 mm; p = 0.07). Conceptus uniformity was not influenced by treatment. Insulin area under the curve (AUC) and mean insulin during the WOI were positively related with mean progesterone (β values were 0.78 (ng/ml)/1000 μU and 0.14 (ng/ml)/(μU/ml) for AUC and mean, respectively; p < 0.05) and maximal progesterone (β values were 1.46 (ng/ml)/1000 μU and 0.27 (ng/ml)/(μU/ml) for AUC and mean, respectively; p < 0.05) levels during the first 10 days of pregnancy, but not with conceptus development and uniformity. In conclusion, high insulin levels during the WOI seem to be beneficial for progesterone secretion in sows, probably mediated through beneficial effects of insulin on follicle development.
Reproduction in Domestic Animals 05/2011; 47(1):62-8. · 1.36 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: High eggshell temperatures (EST; ≥38.9°C) during the second half of incubation are known to decrease the body and organ development of broiler hatchlings. In particular, relative heart weights are decreased by a high EST, and this may increase the incidence of metabolic disorders that are associated with cardiovascular development, such as ascites. The current study investigated the effects of a high EST on chick quality, subsequent performance, and the incidence of ascites later in life. Eggs were incubated at a normal (37.8°C) or high (38.9°C) EST from d 7 of incubation onward. After hatching, the chickens were housed per EST in pens, and a normal or cold temperature schedule was applied during the grow-out period. Hatchability, hatchling quality, BW, feed conversion ratio, total mortality, mortality associated with ascites, slaughter characteristics, and ascites susceptibility at 6 wk of age were evaluated. Except for total ventricle weight, no interaction was found between EST and the grow-out temperature. Hatchability was comparable between the EST treatments, but the percentage of second-grade chickens was 0.7% higher at the high EST. Yolk-free body mass was 3.0 g lower, and heart weights were 26% lower at hatch in the high compared with the normal EST treatment. Body weight continued to be less during the grow-out period after the high EST incubation. However, breast meat yield was 1.0% higher in the high than in the normal EST. Feed conversion ratio did not differ between EST treatments. Total mortality was 4.1% higher and mortality associated with ascites was 3.8% higher in the high compared with the normal EST treatment. The ratio between the right and total ventricle was 1.1% higher in the high compared with the normal EST treatment at slaughter age. In conclusion, a high EST from d 7 of incubation onward decreased hatchling quality and growth performance, but increased breast meat yield. Furthermore, high EST incubation increased the incidence of ascites, which may be related to the reduced heart development at hatch.
Poultry Science 03/2011; 90(3):624-32. · 1.73 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: In practice, many hatchability and chick quality problems have been related to the control of embryo temperature (ET) during incubation. Within an incubator, set at a constant machine temperature (MT), ET can vary substantially. Embryo temperature is the result of the balance between heat transfer to and from the embryo and heat production (HP) of the embryo. We investigated which factors theoretically could account for the variation in ET within an incubator. First, the effects egg weight, MT, and oxygen availability on HP of embryos were quantified. Differences in HP could be due only to differences in the amount of energy utilized from the egg or to differences in the efficiency of the conversion of energy in the egg to energy in the chicken, indicated as E(YFB). Results of these analyses showed that differences in HP attributable to egg weight or oxygen availability were mainly a result of the amount of energy used from the egg constituents and not of a change in E(YFB). However, at a given MT, this variation in HP could account for a maximum increase in ET of only 1.21°C, suggesting that other factors played a role because in practice within an incubator, larger differences in ET have been found. The most important factor was probably the difference in air velocity within an incubator, resulting in differences in heat transfer. Because of this variation, ET varied within an incubator and with increasing ET, E(YFB) decreased, resulting in an even higher HP and consequently ET. We concluded that this theoretical approach could explain the wide variation in ET, and consequently could explain the negative effects of high ET on hatchability and chick quality found in the literature. This indicates that, in both practice and in incubation experiments, it is of great importance to realize that any factor affecting HP or heat transfer influences ET. We strongly suggest that ET (or eggshell temperature) be controlled in any incubation experiment involving hatchability or energy utilization.
Poultry Science 02/2011; 90(2):516-23. · 1.73 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Negative effects of prolonged egg storage on hatchability and chick quality may be caused by changes in the embryo or in the egg characteristics, or by both. The aim of this experiment was to investigate whether prestorage incubation (PSI), frequent warming during storage (FW), or hypercapnic incubation (HI) during the first 5 d of incubation affect egg characteristics, embryonic development, hatchability, and chick quality. The experiment had a 2 × 2 × 2 randomized design: PSI (yes-no), FW (yes-no), and HI (yes-no). All eggs were stored for 15 d at 16°C and 75% RH. On the second day after oviposition, half of the eggs were incubated for 7 h (PSI). During storage, half of the eggs were warmed 6 times for 30 min in water at 37.8°C (FW). During the first 5 d of incubation, the CO(2) concentration in the incubator was maintained between 0.70 and 0.80% (HI) or increased from 0.05 to 0.20% (control). Prestorage incubation and FW increased the stage of embryonic development and the number of viable embryonic cells, but these treatments did not have a pronounced effect on egg characteristics, hatchability, or chick quality. Hypercapnic incubation decreased total albumen pH, which was measured at 18, 42, 66, and 90 h of incubation, and the percentage of eggs classified as infertile (Δ = 1.2%). In contrast, HI retarded embryonic development, decreased hatchability of fertile eggs by 1.3%, but did not affect chick quality. We conclude that both PSI and FW did not improve hatchability and chick quality, although the stage of embryonic development and the number of viable embryonic cells increased due to the treatments. Hypercapnic incubation decreased total albumen pH, which may be related to the increased number of embryos that continued their development at the onset of incubation. Because HI retarded further embryonic development and decreased hatchability, long-term stored embryos were probably sensitive to the CO(2) concentration of 0.70 to 0.80% between 48 and 72 h of incubation.
Poultry Science 11/2010; 89(11):2470-83. · 1.73 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: We investigated effects of loose housing of the sow during lactation and enrichment of the pen pre- and postweaning on performance of newly weaned piglets. Before weaning, piglets (n = 320) were housed in an enriched (straw, wood shavings, peat, and branches) or barren pen with a confined or loose-housed sow (n = 32). Loose-housed sows and their piglets could eat together from a family feeder, whereas confined sows and piglets had separate feeding troughs. Piglets (n = 256) were mixed postweaning, and 4 piglets from each litter were relocated to a barren pen (n = 32 pens) and 4 other piglets were housed in an enriched pen (n = 32 pens). Growth from d 15 until weaning was greater for piglets from enriched pens (4.38 ± 0.29 vs. 4.71 ± 0.21 kg/pig, P < 0.05) and tended to be greater for piglets with a loose-housed sow compared with piglets with a confined sow (4.41 ± 0.26 vs. 4.67 ± 0.24 kg/pig, P = 0.10). Preweaning feed intake was not affected by preweaning conditions (P > 0.25). Piglets from enriched preweaning pens ate more in the first 2 d postweaning than piglets from barren pens (first 48 h, barren 0.45 ± 0.05 kg/pig, enriched 0.53 ± 0.04 kg/pig, P < 0.05). Piglets relocated to an enriched pen after weaning showed a greater growth in the 2 wk after weaning (barren 5.5 ± 0.2 kg/pig, enriched 6.2 ± 0.2 kg/pig, P < 0.0001), had a profoundly reduced diarrhea prevalence than piglets housed in barren pens after weaning (barren 2.4 ± 0.4 d, enriched 1.0 ± 0.3 d, P < 0.0001), and had a greater feed efficiency (barren 0.81 ± 0.03, enriched 0.85 ± 0.02, P < 0.05). Enrichment of the preweaning environment likely stimulates development of feeding behaviors and consequently increases feed intake immediately after weaning. Providing piglets with an enriched environment after weaning positively affected postweaning growth, feed efficiency, and incidence of diarrhea, which may be caused by decreased stress or increased gut health. Enrichment of the pre- and postweaning environment seems important in improving performance and health of newly weaned pigs.
Journal of Animal Science 11/2010; 88(11):3554-62. · 2.10 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: This study aimed to investigate whether pre- and early postnatal experiences of rearing hens contribute to the ability to cope with infectious challenges at an older age. In a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement, 352 Lohmann Brown chicks were exposed to either suboptimal or optimized incubation plus hatch conditions, and to cage or enriched rearing from week 0 to 7 of age. After week 7 all rearing conditions were similar until the end of the experiment. The development of adaptive capacity to infectious challenges was investigated by introducing an Eimeria and Infectious Bronchitis (IB) infection on day 53 and day 92, respectively. BW gain and feed intake during the infections, duodenal lesions and amount of positive stained CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells and macrophages at day 4 and day 7 after Eimeria infection, as well as the IB antibody titer throughout the experimental period were determined. The results showed a significant interaction between incubation plus hatch and rearing environment. Optimized incubation plus hatch conditions followed by an enriched rearing environment resulted in the least weight loss (P < 0.05) and the highest feed intake (P < 0.01) from day 3 to day 7 after the Eimeria infection (day 56 to 60 of age), compared with all other treatments. In addition, the optimized × enriched chicks had the highest BW gain from day 7 to day 14 after IB infection (day 99 to 106 of age), compared with chicks housed in a cage environment (P < 0.01). Besides the interaction, optimized incubation plus hatch alone resulted in reduced macrophage numbers in the duodenal tissue at day 4 after Eimeria infection, compared with suboptimal incubation plus hatch, whereas the enriched rearing environment stimulated the recovery of intestinal damage caused by Eimeria (P < 0.05) and reduced the production of specific antibodies after IB infection (P < 0.05), compared with the cage environment. In conclusion, this study shows that early life experiences can indeed affect the capacity of rearing hens to cope with an Eimeria and IB infection at an older age, in which performance of chicks is best maintained after optimized incubation plus hatch followed by enriched rearing. This suggests that the development of adaptive capacity to infectious challenges can be influenced with management during a short period in pre- or early postnatal life, but that effects last for a considerable time after cessation of the specific management.
animal 10/2010; 4(10):1688-96. · 1.74 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Environmental conditions during incubation such as temperature and O(2) concentration affect embryo development that may be associated with modifications in nutrient partitioning. Additionally, prenatal conditions can affect postnatal nutrient utilization. Using broiler chicken embryos, we studied the effects of eggshell temperature (EST; 37.8 or 38.9 degrees C) and O(2) (17, 21, or 25%) applied from d 7 until 19 of incubation in a 2 x 3 factorial design. Effects of these factors on embryonic survival, development, and nutrient utilization were assessed in the pre- and posthatch period. High EST reduced yolk-free body mass compared with normal EST (36.1 vs. 37.7 g), possibly through reduced incubation duration (479 vs. 487 h) and lower efficiency of protein utilization for growth (83.6 vs. 86.8%). Increasing O(2) increased yolk-free body mass (from 35.7 to 38.3 g) at 12 h after emergence from the eggshell, but differences were larger between the low and normal O(2) than between the normal and high O(2). This might be due to the lower efficiency of nutrient utilization for growth at low O(2). However, the effects of O(2) that were found at 12 h were less pronounced at 48 h posthatch. When O(2) was shifted to 21% for all treatments at d 19 of incubation, embryos incubated at low O(2) used nutrients more efficiently than those incubated at normal or high O(2). An additional negative effect on survival and chick development occurred when embryos were exposed to a combination of high EST and low O(2). Possible explanations include reduced nutrient availability for hatching, decreased body development to fulfill the energy-demanding hatching process, and higher incidence of malpositions. In conclusion, EST and O(2) during incubation affect nutrient utilization for growth, which may explain differences in survival and development. Embryos raised under suboptimal environmental conditions in the prenatal period may develop adaptive mechanisms that still continue in the posthatch period.
Poultry Science 09/2010; 89(9):2010-21. · 1.73 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Egg storage beyond 7 d is associated with an increase in incubation duration and a decrease in hatchability and chick quality. Negative effects of prolonged egg storage may be caused by changes in the embryo, by changes in egg characteristics, or by both. An adjustment in storage air composition may reduce negative effects of prolonged egg storage because it may prevent changes in the embryo and in egg characteristics. An experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of high CO(2) concentrations or a low O(2) concentration in the storage air on egg characteristics, embryonic development, hatchability, and chick quality. Eggs were stored for 14 d in 4 different storage air compositions: normal air (control; 20.9% O(2), 0.05% CO(2), 78.1% N(2)), 0.74% CO(2) treatment (20.8% O(2), 0.74% CO(2), 77.5% N(2)), 1.5% CO(2) treatment (20.6% O(2), 1.5% CO(2), 77.0% N(2))(,) or 3.0% O(2) treatment (3.0% O(2), 0.04% CO(2), 96.0% N(2)). The storage temperature was 16 degrees C and the RH was 75%. Results showed that the change in albumen pH and albumen height between oviposition and the end of storage was less in the 0.74 and 1.5% CO(2) treatments than in the control and 3.0% O(2) treatments (P < 0.001 and P < 0.001, respectively). None of the treatments affected the stage of embryonic development on d 4 of incubation, hatchability, or chick quality on the day of hatch in terms of BW, chick length, and yolk-free body mass. Although high CO(2) concentrations in the storage air had a positive effect on albumen height and albumen pH, it is concluded that the storage air compositions, studied in the current study, do not affect embryonic development, hatchability, or chick quality when eggs are stored for 14 d at a storage temperature of 16 degrees C.
Poultry Science 09/2010; 89(9):1992-2000. · 1.73 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: To investigate the effect of incubation conditions on layer hatchlings, an experiment was performed in which layer eggs were incubated at a normal (37.8 degrees C) or high (38.9 degrees C) eggshell temperature (EST) and a hole was punctured in the air cell of half of the eggs in both EST treatments from d 14 of incubation onward. Chick development, plasma metabolites, and hepatic glycogen were measured at 12 h after emergence from the eggshell. Embryo mortality was not affected by the EST or hole treatment. At the high EST, yolk-free body mass was 0.7 g lower and residual yolk weight was 0.7 g higher than at the normal EST. This may be related to the shorter incubation duration at the high EST. Relative heart, lung, stomach, liver, spleen, and intestinal weights were lower in the high EST than in the normal EST group. Yolk-free body mass did not differ between eggs with or without a hole, but residual yolk weight was slightly lower in eggs with a hole (0.3 g). Relative lung weights were higher in eggs with than without a hole, whereas no effect on other organs was found. Plasma glucose, lactate, and uric acid concentrations did not differ between the EST or hole treatments. Hepatic glycogen was lower in the high EST (7.3 mg) than in the normal EST group (11.2 mg) at 12 h after emergence from the eggshell, and this effect may be related to the shorter hatching process at the high EST. Hepatic glycogen levels were lower in eggs with a hole (8.6 mg) compared with eggs without a hole (10.0 mg), and this may be related to the longer period between external pipping and hatching in eggs with a hole. In conclusion, the EST and hole treatment did not interact, and neither treatments affected embryonic survival. High EST negatively affected hatchling development and seemed to change the carbohydrate metabolism in layer embryos. The effect of a hole in the air cell was limited.
Poultry Science 08/2010; 89(8):1716-23. · 1.73 Impact Factor
