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ABSTRACT: The main objective was to investigate malaria transmission dynamics in three different sites, two highland villages (Fort Ternan and Lunyerere) and a lowland peri-urban area (Nyalenda) of Kisumu city. Adult mosquitoes were collected using PSC and CDC light trap while malaria parasite incidence data was collected from a cohort of children on monthly basis. Rainfall, humidity and temperature data were collected by automated weather stations. Negative binomial and Poisson generalized additive models were used to examine the risk of being infected, as well as the association with the weather variables. Anopheles gambiae s.s. was most abundant in Lunyerere, An. arabiensis in Nyalenda and An. funestus in Fort Ternan. The CDC light traps caught a higher proportion of mosquitoes (52.3%) than PSC (47.7%), although not significantly different (P = 0.689). The EIR's were 0, 61.79 and 6.91 bites/person/year for Fort Ternan, Lunyerere and Nyalenda. Site, month and core body temperature were all associated with the risk of having malaria parasites (P < 0.0001). Rainfall was found to be significantly associated with the occurrence of P. falciparum malaria parasites, but not relative humidity and air temperature. The presence of malaria parasite-infected children in all the study sites provides evidence of local malaria transmission.
Journal of Tropical Medicine 01/2012; 2012:912408.
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ABSTRACT: A large proportion of mosquito larval habitats in urban and rural communities in sub-Saharan Africa are man-made. Therefore, community-based larval source management (LSM) could make a significant contribution to malaria control in an integrated vector management approach. Here we implemented an exploratory study to assess malaria prevalence and people's knowledge, attitudes and practices on malaria transmission, its control and the importance of man-made aquatic habitats for the development of disease vectors in one peri-urban lowland and two rural highland communities in western Kenya. We implemented monthly cross-sectional malaria surveys and administered a semi-structured questionnaire in 90 households, i.e. 30 households in each locality. Malaria prevalence was moderate (3.2-6.5%) in all sites. Nevertheless, residents perceived malaria as their major health risk. Thirty-two percent (29/90) of all respondents did not know that mosquitoes are responsible for the transmission of malaria. Over two-thirds (69/90) of the respondents said that mosquito breeding site could be found close to their homes but correct knowledge of habitat characteristics was poor. Over one-third (26/67) believed that immature mosquitoes develop in vegetation. Man-made pools, drainage channels and burrow pits were rarely mentioned. After explaining where mosquito larvae develop, 56% (50/90) felt that these sites were important for their livelihood. Peri-urban residents knew more about mosquitoes' role in malaria transmission, could more frequently describe the larval stages and their breeding habitats, and were more likely to use bed nets even though malaria prevalence was only half of what was found in the rural highland sites (p<0.05). This was independent of their education level or socio-economic status. Hence rural communities are more vulnerable to malaria infection, thus calling for additional methods to complement personal protection measures for vector control. Larval source management was the most frequently mentioned (30%) tool for malaria control but was only practiced by 2 out of 90 respondents. Targeting the larval stages of malaria vectors is an underutilized malaria prevention measure. Sustainable elimination or rendering of such habitats unsuitable for larval development needs horizontally organized, community-based programs that take people's needs into account. Innovative, community-based training programs need to be developed to increase people's awareness of man-made vector breeding sites and acceptable control methods need to be designed in collaboration with the communities.
Acta tropica 09/2010; 115(3):248-56. · 2.22 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Sampling indoor resting African malaria vectors is traditionally done by hand catches with oral or mechanical aspirators and pyrethrum spray catches (PSCs). In this study, we designed and briefly evaluated an inexpensive but practical alternative by using a cloth resting box or wicker resting basket and a ceiling net. Evaluations were performed in greenhouse and field situations in rural Kenya by comparing capture rates of Anopheles gambiae s.l. and Anopheles funestus (Giles) in these traps to hand collections and PSCs. A resting box and a ceiling net when used together collected more mosquitoes than a single collector using a hand-held aspirator but only one-third the number collected by PSCs. At sites where PSCs are impractical, a resting box and ceiling net can be effectively used as an alternative to hand catches in malaria surveillance.
Journal of Medical Entomology 06/2006; 43(3):473-9. · 1.76 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The success of distinguishing blood meal sources of Anopheles gambiae Giles through deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) profiling was investigated by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification at the TC-11 and VWA human short tandem repeats (STR) loci. Blood meal size and locus had no significant effect on the success of amplifying human DNA from blood meals digested for 0, 8, 16, 24 and 32 h (P = 0.85 and 0.26 respectively). However, logistic regression found a significant negative relationship between time since ingestion and the success probability of obtaining positive PCR products among meals digested for between 8 and 32 h (P = 0.001). Approximately 80% of fresh blood meals were successfully profiled. After 8 h, the proportion of blood meals that could be successfully profiled decreased slowly with time after ingestion, dropping to below 50% after approximately 15 h. There was no significant difference in the success of amplifying human DNA from blood meals of mosquitoes killed at time 0 and 8 h after ingestion (P = 0.272).
Bulletin of Entomological Research 07/2002; 92(3):233-9. · 1.88 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: We analysed genetic variability in Anopheles arabiensis and Anopheles gambiae populations using microsatellite loci to determine whether the Rift Valley restricts the flow of genes. Deviations from Hardy-Weinberg expectations were significant, and were most likely to be due to the high frequency of null alleles observed. An. arabiensis populations occurring between 40 and 700 km apart across the Eastern arm of the Rift Valley were not differentiated (pair-wise F(ST) range: 0.0033-0.0265, P > 0.05). Neither were An. gambiae populations from Asembo Bay and Ghana (F(ST): 0.0063, P > 0.05) despite a geographical separation of about 5000 km. In contrast, significant differentiation was observed between An. gambiae populations from Asembo Bay and Kilifi (about 700 km apart; F(ST) = 0.1249, P < 0.01), suggesting the presence of a barrier to gene flow.
Insect Molecular Biology 06/1999; 8(2):287-97. · 2.53 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: We analysed genetic variability in Anopheles arabiensis and Anopheles gambiae populations using micro-satellite loci to determine whether the Rift Valley restricts the flow of genes. Deviations from Hardy–Weinberg expectations were significant, and were most likely to be due to the high frequency of null alleles observed. An. arabiensis populations occurring between 40 and 700 km apart across the Eastern arm of the Rift Valley were not differentiated (pair-wise Fst range: 0.0033–0.0265, P > 0.05). Neither were An. gambiae populations from Asembo Bay and Ghana (Fst: 0.0063, P > 0.05) despite a geographical separation of about 5000 km. In contrast, significant differentiation was observed between An. gambiae populations from Asembo Bay and Kilifi (about 700 km apart; FST= 0.1249, P < 0.01), suggesting the presence of a barrier to gene flow.
Insect Molecular Biology 04/1999; 8(2):287 - 297. · 2.53 Impact Factor
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F.O. Okumu,
G.F. Killeen,
S. Ogoma,
L. Biswaro,
R.C. Smallegange,
E. Mbeyela,
E. Titus,
C. Munk,
H Ngonyani,
W. Takken,
H Mshinda, W.R. Mukabana,
S.J. Moore
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ABSTRACT: Background Disease transmitting mosquitoes locate humans and other blood hosts by identifying their characteristic odor profiles. Using their olfactory organs, the mosquitoes detect compounds present in human breath, sweat and skins, and use these as cues to locate and obtain blood from the humans. These odor compounds can be synthesized in vitro, then formulated to mimic humans. While some synthetic mosquito lures already exist, evidence supporting their utility is limited to laboratory settings, where long-range stimuli cannot be investigated. Methodology and Principal Findings Here we report the development and field evaluation of an odor blend consisting of known mosquito attractants namely carbon dioxide, ammonia and carboxylic acids, which was optimized at distances comparable with attractive ranges of humans to mosquitoes. Binary choice assays were conducted inside a large-cage semi-field enclosure using attractant-baited traps placed 20 m apart. This enabled high-throughput optimization of concentrations at which the individual candidate attractants needed to be added so as to obtain a blend maximally attractive to laboratory-reared An. gambiae. To determine whether wild mosquitoes would also be attracted to this synthetic odor blend and to compare it with whole humans under epidemiologically relevant conditions, field experiments were conducted inside experimental huts, where the blend was compared with 10 different adult male volunteers (20-34 years old). The blend attracted 3 to 5 times more mosquitoes than humans when the two baits were in different experimental huts (10–100 metres apart), but was equally or less attractive than humans when compared side by side within same huts. Conclusion and Significance This highly attractive substitute for human baits might enable development of technologies for trapping mosquitoes in numbers sufficient to prevent rather than merely monitor transmission of mosquito-borne diseases.
PLoS One 5 (2010) 1.
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Malaria Journal 5 (2006) 39.
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Nature Biotechnology 24 (2006) 9.
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Malaria Journal 1 (2002) - ISSN 1475-2875.
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W.R. Mukabana
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ABSTRACT: The results of a series of studies designed to understand the principal factors that determine the differential attractiveness of humans to the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae are described in this thesis. Specific attention was paid to the role of body emanations and infection (of humans) with the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum . The main findings of these studies are summarised in the following sections. Differential attractiveness of humans to Anopheles gambiae ( Chapter 1 ) Although it has frequently been reported that human beings differ in their degree of attractiveness to mosquitoes, the principal causes that make certain individuals to be preferred more than others are not well known. This gap in knowledge has hindered the understanding of the transmission dynamics of malaria and other mosquito-borne diseases. From an epidemiological point of view, high malaria transmission rates are expected if mosquito vectors preferentially select infective humans for a blood meal, become infected, survive long enough for the parasites to develop to infective stages and proceed to bite uninfected individuals selectively. In terms of fitness, mosquito vectors would be better off if they select hosts that (1) are docile and less defensive so as to minimise feeding-associated risks of mortality, (2) have blood of a high nutritional value, (3) are free of (gametocyte) parasites, healthy and (4) have no anti-mosquito immunity. The answers to these epidemiological and fitness factors are still lacking. Furthermore, since host seeking is odour-mediated, the identification of chemical compounds responsible for attracting mosquitoes to their vertebrate hosts would help in developing traps that are useful for vector surveillance and control. Research in this area is rapidly advancing but has not produced tools for field application. It is felt that more research effort is needed so that new approaches towards understanding and combating disease vectors can be developed. Characterisation of mosquito blood meals using DNA markers (Chapters 2 & 3)The analysis of arthropod blood meals using molecular genetic markers was reviewed and forensic techniques borrowed from the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), USA, used to evaluate the effect of blood meal size and extent of digestion on the ability to identify human DNA extracted from blood meals of Anopheles gambiae . The review recommended that proper and appropriate storage, determination of the concentration of host DNA and collection within few hours after ingestion are important parameters for improving the success of identifying blood meal sources of field-collected mosquitoes. Further, microsatellite markers were highlighted as being more appropriate than minisatellites in analysing blood meals that have been highly degraded e.g. through prolonged digestion. Also, mitochondrial DNA targets were recommended to be better than nuclear DNA targets for analysing blood meals that have been highly degraded. Blood meal size and (microsatellite) locus (analysed) were shown not to affect the success of amplifying human DNA extracted from blood meals of An. gambiae after having been digested for 0, 8, 16, 24 and 32 hours. However, a significant negative relationship between the time since ingestion and the success probability of obtaining positive PCR reactions among blood meals digested for between eight and 32 hours was demonstrated. There was no significant difference in the success probability of amplifying human DNA from blood meals of mosquitoes killed at zero and 8 hours after ingestion. The research demonstrated that not the quality of ingested blood, but the time since ingestion determined the success of blood meal analysis. Host characteristics and differential attractiveness of humans to An. gambiae (Chapter 4, 5 & 6) A tent olfactometer that accommodates complete humans as sources of host-seeking stimuli was designed, developed and tested. The olfactometer was used to study (1) differential attractiveness of humans to host-seeking An. gambiae and (2) how the differences, so elicited, are affected by human breath, body odour, heat and moisture. Nine human subjects were successfully ranked for their attractiveness to the mosquitoes based on (mosquito) responses to their complete body emanations encompassing body odour, heat and moisture. The nine subjects were classified into least (3 persons), medium (4 persons) and most attractive groups (2 persons). Breath was shown to reduce mosquito responses, whereas body odour was highly attractive. Breath was also shown to be an important contributor to between-person differences in relative attractiveness to An. gambiae . Whereas differential attractiveness of two human subjects for the mosquitoes could be demonstrated based on their total body emanations (breath plus body odour), the attractiveness of the two subjects did not differ significantly based on body odour alone. Body odour from either individual was consistently more attractive than total emanations from the other. The same results were obtained with another pair of individuals. It was concluded that breath, although known to contain attractive semiochemicals like carbon dioxide, may also contain compounds that inhibit attraction and may thus serve as an important contributor to between-person differences in relative attractiveness to this important malaria vector. The inhibitory effect of breath was postulated to be allomonal as it benefits the emitter (human being) but does not harm the recipient (mosquito vector). Body heat and moisture were shown to have significant effects on the attraction of An. gambiae to humans. In general, An. gambiae was more attracted to the individual whose body emanations were warmer but less moist than those of an opposing counterpart, in choice experiments. It was concluded that body heat and moisture influence host-selection by An. gambiae at short range and that their effect is probably achieved through interaction with breath components. Parasite infection and differential attractiveness of humans to An. gambiae (Chapter 7 & 8) A rare window of opportunity allowed for the investigation of the effect of clinical symptoms and parasitaemia due to Plasmodium falciparum on variability in human attractiveness to the malaria mosquito An. gambiae using the tent olfactometer previously developed. The relative attractiveness of an individual who was always more attractive than a specific counterpart (when both were uninfected) was suppressed when he (the 'putatively' more attractive individual) displayed clinical symptoms (fever and profuse sweating) of malaria caused by P. falciparum . This finding provided both new and alternative evidence, within the intricate web of Anopheles-Homo-Plasmodium interactions, that the malaria parasite P. falciparum influences the olfactory signals produced by human hosts. Field studies, in which a twin pair of male humans was recruited as a follow-up to the olfactometer study, found that being positive with malaria parasites (trophozoites and possibly gametocytes of P. falciparum ) is associated with higher numbers of attracted mosquitoes ( An. gambiaesensu lato ). This effect was not a consequence of the time of the year and the higher number of mosquitoes present in that period. It was recommended that further investigations be carried out. If these results are confirmed to be true, this work will constitute the first evidence that P. falciparum is capable of enhancing its own transmission by manipulating the physico-chemical characteristics of its vertebrate hosts in such a way that infected individuals are preferentially selected as blood meal sources by host-seeking malaria vectors. What questions remain unanswered (Chapter 9) Much as this thesis has provided some answers to why humans differ in their degrees of attractiveness to mosquitoes ( An. gambiae ), many more questions remain unanswered. The key questions in point include the following: (1) How can we tell whether one is more or less attractive to host-seeking mosquitoes? (2) How do parasites affect the host-seeking behaviour of their insect vectors? and (3) How do evolutionary processes related to host-seeking behaviour affect the fitness of mosquito vectors? The answers to these questions and those to a myriad of others are still waiting to be resolved.
WUR. Promotor: Prof. Dr. J.C. van Lenteren, co-promotor(en): dr. ir. W. Takken. - Wageningen : [s.n.], 2002.
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Malaria Journal 3 (2004) 1.
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Trends in parasitology 18 (2002).
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Malaria Journal 1 (2002). - ISSN 1475-2875.
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The Lancet 4 (2004).
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ABSTRACT: Genetic modification (GM) of mosquitoes (which renders them genetically modified organisms, GMOs) offers opportunities for controlling malaria. Transgenic strains of mosquitoes have been developed and evaluation of these to 1) replace or suppress wild vector populations and 2) reduce transmission and deliver public health gains are an imminent prospect. The transition of this approach from confined laboratory settings to open field trials in disease-endemic countries (DECs) is a staged process that aims to maximize the likelihood of epidemiologic benefits while minimizing potential pitfalls during implementation. Unlike conventional approaches to vector control, application of GM mosquitoes will face contrasting expectations of multiple stakeholders, the management of which will prove critical to safeguard support and avoid antagonism, so that potential public health benefits can be fully evaluated. Inclusion of key stakeholders in decision-making processes, transfer of problem-ownership to DECs, and increased support from the wider malaria research community are important prerequisites for this. It is argued that the many developments in this field require coordination by an international entity to serve as a guiding coalition to stimulate collaborative research and facilitate stakeholder involvement. Contemporary developments in the field of modern biotechnology, and in particular GM, requires competencies beyond the field of biology, and the future of transgenic mosquitoes will hinge on the ability to govern the process of their introduction in societies in which perceived risks may outweigh rational and responsible involvement
American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 77 (2007) Suppl. 6.
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W.R. Mukabana,
K. Kannady,
G.M. Kiama,
J N Ijumba,
E.M. Mathenge,
I. Kiche,
G. Nkwengulila,
L.E.G. Mboera,
D Mtasiwa,
Y. Yamagata,
Schayk,
B.G.J. Knols,
S W Lindsay,
M. Caldas de Castro,
H Mshinda,
M Tanner,
U. Fillinger,
G.F. Killeen
Malaria Journal 5 (2006) 9.
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ABSTRACT: Background - Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto is considered to be highly anthropophilic and volatiles of human origin provide essential cues during its host-seeking behaviour. A synthetic blend of three human-derived volatiles, ammonia, lactic acid and tetradecanoic acid, attracts A. gambiae. In addition, volatiles produced by human skin bacteria are attractive to this mosquito species. The purpose of the current study was to test the effect of ten compounds present in the headspace of human bacteria on the host-seeking process of A. gambiae. The effect of each of the ten compounds on the attractiveness of a basic blend of ammonia, lactic and tetradecanoic acid to A. gambiae was examined. Methods- The host-seeking response of A. gambiae was evaluated in a laboratory set-up using a dual-port olfactometer and in a semi-field facility in Kenya using MM-X traps. Odorants were released from LDPE sachets and placed inside the olfactometer as well as in the MM-X traps. Carbon dioxide was added in the semi-field experiments, provided from pressurized cylinders or fermenting yeast. Results - The olfactometer and semi-field set-up allowed for high-throughput testing of the compounds in blends and in multiple concentrations. Compounds with an attractive or inhibitory effect were identified in both bioassays. 3-Methyl-1-butanol was the best attractant in both set-ups and increased the attractiveness of the basic blend up to three times. 2-Phenylethanol reduced the attractiveness of the basic blend in both bioassays by more than 50%. Conclusions - Identification of volatiles released by human skin bacteria led to the discovery of compounds that have an impact on the host-seeking behaviour of A. gambiae. 3-Methyl-1-butanol may be used to increase mosquito trap catches, whereas 2-phenylethanol has potential as a spatial repellent. These two compounds could be applied in push-pull strategies to reduce mosquito numbers in malaria endemic areas.
Malaria Journal 10 (2011).
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ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Carbon dioxide (CO2) plays an important role in the host-seeking process of opportunistic, zoophilic and anthropophilic mosquito species and is, therefore, commonly added to mosquito sampling tools. The African malaria vector Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto is attracted to human volatiles augmented by CO2. This study investigated whether CO2, usually supplied from gas cylinders acquired from commercial industry, could be replaced by CO2 derived from fermenting yeast (yeast-produced CO2). METHODS: Trapping experiments were conducted in the laboratory, semi-field and field, with An. gambiae s.s. as the target species. MM-X traps were baited with volatiles produced by mixtures of yeast, sugar and water, prepared in 1.5, 5 or 25 L bottles. Catches were compared with traps baited with industrial CO2. The additional effect of human odours was also examined. In the laboratory and semi-field facility dual-choice experiments were conducted. The effect of traps baited with yeast-produced CO2 on the number of mosquitoes entering an African house was studied in the MalariaSphere. Carbon dioxide baited traps, placed outside human dwellings, were also tested in an African village setting. The laboratory and semi-field data were analysed by a χ2-test, the field data by GLM. In addition, CO2 concentrations produced by yeast-sugar solutions were measured over time. RESULTS: Traps baited with yeast-produced CO2 caught significantly more mosquitoes than unbaited traps (up to 34 h post mixing the ingredients) and also significantly more than traps baited with industrial CO2, both in the laboratory and semi-field. Adding yeast-produced CO2 to traps baited with human odour significantly increased trap catches. In the MalariaSphere, outdoor traps baited with yeast-produced or industrial CO2 + human odour reduced house entry of mosquitoes with a human host sleeping under a bed net indoors. Anopheles gambiae s.s. was not caught during the field trials. However, traps baited with yeast-produced CO2 caught similar numbers of Anopheles arabiensis as traps baited with industrial CO2. Addition of human odour increased trap catches. CONCLUSIONS: Yeast-produced CO2 can effectively replace industrial CO2 for sampling of An. gambiae s.s.. This will significantly reduce costs and allow sustainable mass-application of odour-baited devices for mosquito sampling in remote areas
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ABSTRACT: Background - Carbon dioxide (CO2) plays an important role in the host-seeking process of opportunistic, zoophilic and anthropophilic mosquito species and is, therefore, commonly added to mosquito sampling tools. The African malaria vector Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto is attracted to human volatiles augmented by CO2. This study investigated whether CO2, usually supplied from gas cylinders acquired from commercial industry, could be replaced by CO2 derived from fermenting yeast (yeast-produced CO2). Methods - Trapping experiments were conducted in the laboratory, semi-field and field, with An. gambiae s.s. as the target species. MM-X traps were baited with volatiles produced by mixtures of yeast, sugar and water, prepared in 1.5, 5 or 25 L bottles. Catches were compared with traps baited with industrial CO2. The additional effect of human odours was also examined. In the laboratory and semi-field facility dual-choice experiments were conducted. The effect of traps baited with yeast-produced CO2 on the number of mosquitoes entering an African house was studied in the MalariaSphere. Carbon dioxide baited traps, placed outside human dwellings, were also tested in an African village setting. The laboratory and semi-field data were analysed by a χ2-test, the field data by GLM. In addition, CO2 concentrations produced by yeast-sugar solutions were measured over time. Results - Traps baited with yeast-produced CO2 caught significantly more mosquitoes than unbaited traps (up to 34 h post mixing the ingredients) and also significantly more than traps baited with industrial CO2, both in the laboratory and semi-field. Adding yeast-produced CO2 to traps baited with human odour significantly increased trap catches. In the MalariaSphere, outdoor traps baited with yeast-produced or industrial CO2 + human odour reduced house entry of mosquitoes with a human host sleeping under a bed net indoors. Anopheles gambiae s.s. was not caught during the field trials. However, traps baited with yeast-produced CO2 caught similar numbers of Anopheles arabiensis as traps baited with industrial CO2. Addition of human odour increased trap catches. Conclusions - Yeast-produced CO2 can effectively replace industrial CO2 for sampling of An. gambiae s.s.. This will significantly reduce costs and allow sustainable mass-application of odour-baited devices for mosquito sampling in remote areas
Malaria Journal 9 (2010).
