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ABSTRACT: Entry of contaminants, such as metals and non-metals, into rainwater harvesting systems can occur directly from rainfall with contributions from collection surfaces, accumulated debris and leachate from storage systems, pipes and taps. Ten rainwater harvesting systems on the east coast of Australia were selected for sampling of roof runoff, storage systems and tap outlets to investigate the variations in rainwater composition as it moved throughout the system, and to identify potential points of contribution to elemental loads. A total of 26 elements were screened at each site. Iron was the only element which was present in significantly higher concentrations in roof runoff samples compared with tank tap samples (P<0.05). At one case study site, results suggested that piping and tap material can contribute to contaminant loads of harvested rainwater. Increased loads of copper were observed in hot tap samples supplied by the rainwater harvesting system via copper piping and a storage hot water system (P<0.05). Similarly, zinc, lead, arsenic, strontium and molybdenum were significantly elevated in samples collected from a polyvinyl chloride pipe sampling point that does not supply household uses, compared with corresponding roof runoff samples (P<0.05). Elemental composition was also found to vary significantly between the tank tap and an internal cold tap at one of the sites investigated, with several elements fluctuating significantly between the two outlets of interest at this site, including potassium, zinc, manganese, barium, copper, vanadium, chromium and arsenic. These results highlighted the variability in the elemental composition of collected rainwater between different study sites and between different sampling points. Atmospheric deposition was not a major contributor to the rainwater contaminant load at the sites tested. Piping materials, however, were shown to contribute significantly to the total elemental load at some locations.
Science of The Total Environment 09/2010; 408(20):4542-8. · 3.29 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Chemical qualities of harvested rainwater were assessed at two residential study sites on the east coast of Australia in relation to coastal proximity and surrounding land uses over the course of a winter and summer month. Daily rainwater samples were collected from the base outlet and surface levels of stored water for chemical analyses. High resolution inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was used to analyse 26 elements in all samples. The summer sampling regime for the industrial coastal Site 1 was dominated by wind gusts originating from the east with a total average elemental load of 25,900+/-17,000 microg/L compared to the significantly lower 10,600+/-3,370 microg/L measured during the winter month, where 84% of wind gust events originated from the west. Data for the inland Site 2, with no proximity to industry, revealed no significant changes in total average loads between the winter (4,870+/-578 microg/L) and summer (4,760+/-2,280 microg/L) months. The most abundant elements found at both sites included Na, K, Mg, and Zn. The rainwater storages at Site 2 fed from a relatively new concrete tiled roof catchment had significantly lower pH and conductivity measurements compared with those at Site 1 with an old galvanised iron roof catchment. It was concluded that seasonal differences in harvested water quality were likely influenced by prevailing wind direction and external influences such as surrounding land uses and proximity to the coast.
Water Science & Technology 01/2010; 61(1):25-36. · 1.12 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The use of domestic rainwater tanks with back up from mains water supplies in urban areas can produce considerable reductions in mains water demands and stormwater runoff. It is commonplace to analyse the performance of rainwater tanks using continuous simulation with daily time steps and average water use assumptions. This paper compares this simplistic analysis to more detailed analysis that employs 6 minute time steps and climate dependent water demand. The use of daily time steps produced considerable under-estimation of annual rainwater yields that were dependent on tank size, rain depth, seasonal distribution of rainfall, water demand and tank configuration. It is shown that analysis of the performance of rainwater tanks is critically dependent on detailed inputs.
Water Science & Technology 01/2007; 55(4):125-33. · 1.12 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Perceptions of the quality of roof harvested rainwater remain an impediment to widespread implementation of rainwater tanks on urban allotments. Previous literature reports on roof water quality have given little consideration to the relative significance of airborne environmental micro-organisms to roof catchment contamination and the issue of tank water quality. This paper outlines the findings of a recent study into the influence of weather on roof water contamination conducted at an urban housing development in Newcastle, on the east coast of Australia. Samples of direct roof run-off were collected during a number of separate rainfall events, and microbial counts were matched to climatic data corresponding to each of the monitored events. Roof run-off contamination was found to be under the strong influence of both wind speed and direction. The preliminary findings of an investigation currently under way into the microbial diversity of rainwater harvesting systems have also been presented. The results indicate that the composition of organisms present varied considerably from source to source and throughout the collection system. In all cases, evidence of faecal contamination was found to be negligible. The implications of these findings to the issues of tank water quality, health risk analysis and monitoring protocols have been discussed.
Water Science & Technology 01/2007; 55(4):245-53. · 1.12 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The microbiological and chemical quality of tank-stored rainwater is impacted directly by roof catchment and subsequent run-off contamination, via direct depositions by birds and small mammals, decay of accumulated organic debris, and atmospheric deposition of airborne micro-organisms and chemical pollutants. Previous literature reports on roof water quality have given little consideration to the relative significance of airborne micro-organisms. This study involved analyses of direct roof run-off at an urban housing development in Newcastle, on the east coast of Australia. A total of 77 samples were collected during 11 separate rainfall events, and microbial counts and mean concentrations of several ionic contaminants were matched to climatic data corresponding to each of the monitored events. Conditions both antecedent to, and those prevailing during each event, were examined to investigate the influence of certain meteorological parameters on the bacterial composition of the roof water and indirectly assess the relative contribution of airborne micro-organisms to the total bacterial load. Results indicated that airborne micro-organisms represented a significant contribution to the bacterial load of roof water at this site, and that the overall contaminant load was influenced by wind velocities, while the profile (composition) of the load varied with wind direction. The implications of these findings to the issues of tank water quality and health risk analysis, appropriate usage and system design are discussed.
Water Research 02/2006; 40(1):37-44. · 4.86 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Integrated urban water cycle management presents a new framework in which solutions to the provision of urban water services can be sought. It enables new and innovative solutions currently constrained by the existing urban water paradigm to be implemented. This paper introduces the UrbanCycle model. The model is being developed in response to the growing and changing needs of the water management sector and in light of the need for tools to evaluate integrated watercycle management approaches. The key concepts underpinning the UrbanCycle model are the adoption of continuous simulation, hierarchical network modelling, and the careful management of computational complexity. The paper reports on the integration of modelling capabilities across the allotment, and subdivision scales, enabling the interactions between these scales to be explored. A case study illustrates the impacts of various mitigation measures possible under an integrated water management framework. The temporal distribution of runoff into ephemeral streams from a residential allotment in Western Sydney is evaluated and linked to the geomorphic and ecological regimes in receiving waters.
Water Science & Technology 02/2005; 52(9):1-9. · 1.12 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Entry of contaminants, such as metals and non-metals, into rainwater harvesting systems can occur directly from rainfall with contributions from collection surfaces, accumulated debris and leachate from storage systems, pipes and taps. Ten rainwater harvesting systems on the east coast of Australia were selected for sampling of roof runoff, storage systems and tap outlets to investigate the variations in rainwater composition as it moved throughout the system, and to identify potential points of contribution to elemental loads. A total of 26 elements were screened at each site. Iron was the only element which was present in significantly higher concentrations in roof runoff samples compared with tank tap samples (P < 0.05). At one case study site, results suggested that piping and tap material can contribute to contaminant loads of harvested rainwater. Increased loads of copper were observed in hot tap samples supplied by the rainwater harvesting system via copper piping and a storage hot water system (P < 0.05). Similarly, zinc, lead, arsenic, strontium and molybdenum were significantly elevated in samples collected from a polyvinyl chloride pipe sampling point that does not supply household uses, compared with corresponding roof runoff samples (P < 0.05). Elemental composition was also found to vary significantly between the tank tap and an internal cold tap at one of the sites investigated, with several elements fluctuating significantly between the two outlets of interest at this site, including potassium, zinc, manganese, barium, copper, vanadium, chromium and arsenic.These results highlighted the variability in the elemental composition of collected rainwater between different study sites and between different sampling points. Atmospheric deposition was not a major contributor to the rainwater contaminant load at the sites tested. Piping materials, however, were shown to contribute significantly to the total elemental load at some locations.
Science of The Total Environment.
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[show abstract]
[hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: The microbiological and chemical quality of tank-stored rainwater is impacted directly by roof catchment and subsequent run-off contamination, via direct depositions by birds and small mammals, decay of accumulated organic debris, and atmospheric deposition of airborne micro-organisms and chemical pollutants. Previous literature reports on roof water quality have given little consideration to the relative significance of airborne micro-organisms. This study involved analyses of direct roof run-off at an urban housing development in Newcastle, on the east coast of Australia. A total of 77 samples were collected during 11 separate rainfall events, and microbial counts and mean concentrations of several ionic contaminants were matched to climatic data corresponding to each of the monitored events. Conditions both antecedent to, and those prevailing during each event, were examined to investigate the influence of certain meteorological parameters on the bacterial composition of the roof water and indirectly assess the relative contribution of airborne micro-organisms to the total bacterial load. Results indicated that airborne micro-organisms represented a significant contribution to the bacterial load of roof water at this site, and that the overall contaminant load was influenced by wind velocities, while the profile (composition) of the load varied with wind direction. The implications of these findings to the issues of tank water quality and health risk analysis, appropriate usage and system design are discussed.
Water Research.
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ABSTRACT: The emerging integrated water cycle management paradigm places a greater emphasis on demand-side management at the household/cluster scale than traditional design approaches. This is the motivation for the development of models that capture the dynamics of household water use at smaller spatial and temporal scales than those traditionally adopted for design of water cycle infrastructure. This study utilised data from Hunter Water Corporation (HWC) that consisted of 161 houses with measurements of monthly indoor water use over a period of 10 years. Temporal analysis of the dataset indicates that household indoor water use is mainly influenced by the household occupancy. Two major sources of occupancy dynamics were hypothesized; permanent long-term changes due to occupants permanently moving in/out and temporary short-term changes due to the occupants going on holidays and/or having visitors. In this study, a household indoor water use model was developed in which a hidden Markov model (HMM) framework was used to identity the long-term dynamics of household occupancy. The preliminary model diagnostics indicate that a reasonable fit was obtained for up to 40% of the households. Further challenges include identifying suitable drivers of the long- term dynamics and capturing the short-term dynamics evident in the data. Water authorities are facing considerable challenges to satisfy the increasing demand (due to population growth) on their water supply systems in the face of the potential for decreased yield due to climate change/variability and the tighter environmental constraints on developing new water sources. This is combined with the additional pressure of the high economic cost of rehabilitation and replacement of aging water infrastructure, which in many areas is reaching the end of its design life and the negative impact of current systems on the natural ecosystems, particularly the receiving waters. Coombes and Kuczera (2002) advocated that traditional centralized approach to water resource system design and management resulted in missed opportunities and that the optimum use of centralized and decentralized approaches needs to be based on a systems approach to evaluate system performance against multiple objectives. The concept of a systems approach is simple to understand, however, as Coombes and Kuczera (2002) note "the devil is in the detail." The current design practices and models which have evolved based on the traditional centralized paradigm are inadequate when adopting a systems approach. The emergence of the paradigm of integrated water cycle management (IWCM) places an emphasis on demand-side management, as well as supply-side management, utilisation of non-traditional water resources, and the concept of fit-for-purpose and decentralisation (Coombes and Kuczera 2002). Effective and efficient design using the IWCM paradigm relies on a greater understanding of the dynamics of household water use at spatial and temporal scales smaller than those traditionally adopted for such design work. For instance, the majority of demand data used to date in IWCM programmes describes the dynamics of water use over large regional scales and at aggregated (typically annual) temporal scales. In contrast, there is limited information or understanding of the dynamics of water use at the household scale. The design of water supply and wastewater infrastructure is generally based on peak demand or wastewater flow volumes (for example; peak day demand, peak hour demand, peak dry weather flow and peak wet weather flow). The advent of the IWCM paradigm implies that future water infrastructure systems will be designed probably quite differently from the
