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ABSTRACT: A number of models have been used to study the development and treatment of breast cancer. Since most breast cancer patients are postmenopausal and treated with hormone therapy, we developed a model to simulate this type of patient. Tumors of human estrogen receptor (ER)-positive breast cancer cells transfected with aromatase (MCF-7Ca) are grown in immune suppressed mice. In this model, we have explored a number of strategies to optimize the antitumor efficacy of treatment such as combining the non-steroidal aromatase inhibitor letrozole with the antiestrogens, tamoxifen. This combination resulted in tumor suppression similar to the antiestrogen alone, but was less effective than letrozole alone. Clinical findings with the non-steroidal inhibitor anastrozole in combination with tamoxifen (ATAC trial) were consistent with our results. Although letrozole was the most effective single agent tested in the model, tumors ultimately began to grow during continued treatment. To investigate the mechanisms by which tumors adapt to growth during letrozole treatment, we determined the expression of signaling proteins in tumors during the course of letrozole treatment compared to the tumors of control mice. We found that tumors initially up regulated the ER, but subsequently receptor levels decreased in tumors unresponsive to letrozole. Adapter proteins (p-Shc and Grb-2) as well as all of the signaling proteins in the MAPK cascade (p-Raf, p-Mek1/2, and p-MAPK), but not Akt, were increased in tumors no longer responsive to letrozole. The results suggest that tumor cells adapt to estrogen deprivation during letrozole treatment by activation of alternate signaling pathways to increase transcription. When letrozole was combined with the pure antiestrogen fulvestrant, to down regulate ER, the combination was more effective than either letrozole or fulvestrant alone. Tumors regressed by 45% and were maintained without growth for the duration of the experiment (29 weeks). Down regulation of ER by fulvestrant may prevent cross talk between these signaling pathways. The results suggest that achieving more complete estrogen blockade may delay development of hormone-independent signaling pathways regulating proliferation.
The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 06/2005; 95(1-5):41-8. · 3.05 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: To study the long-term effects of estrogen deprivation on breast cancer, MCF-7Ca human estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer cells stably transfected with human aromatase gene were cultured in the steroid-depleted medium for 6 to 8 months until they had acquired the ability to grow. Proliferation of these cells (UMB-1Ca) was accompanied by increased expression of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2, increased activation of AKT through phosphorylation at Ser473 and Thr308, and increased invasion compared with parental MCF-7Ca cells. Estrogen receptor expression was also increased 5-fold. Although growth was inhibited by the antiestrogen fulvestrant, the IC50 was 100-fold higher than for parental MCF-7Ca cells. Aromatase inhibitor letrozole also inhibited growth at 10,000-fold higher concentration than required for MCF-7Ca cells, whereas anastrozole, exemestane, formestane, and tamoxifen were ineffective at 100 nmol/L. Growth of UMB-1Ca cells was inhibited by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor wortmannin (IC50 approximately 25 nmol/L) and epidermal growth factor receptor kinase inhibitor gefitinib (ZD 1839; IC50 approximately 10 micromol/L) whereas parental MCF-7Ca cells were insensitive to these agents. Concomitant treatment of UMB-1Ca cells with the signal transduction inhibitors and anastrozole and tamoxifen restored their growth inhibitory effects. These studies show that estrogen deprivation results in up-regulation of growth factor signaling pathways, which leads to a more aggressive and hormone refractory phenotype. Cross-talk between ER and growth factor signaling was evident as inhibition of these pathways could restore estrogen responsiveness to these cells.
Cancer Research 06/2005; 65(9):3903-10. · 7.86 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Aromatase inhibitors have now been approved as first-line treatment options for hormone-dependent advanced breast cancer. When compared to tamoxifen, these aromatase inhibitors provide significant survival and tolerability advantages. However, the optimal use of an aromatase inhibitor and tamoxifen remains to be established. To date, the intratumoral aromatase xenograft model has proved accurate in predicting the outcome of clinical trials. Utilizing this model, we performed long-term studies with tamoxifen and letrozole to determine time to disease progression with each of the treatment regimens. Aromatase-transfected MCF-7Ca human breast cancer cells were grown as tumor xenografts in female ovariectomized athymic nude mice in which androstenedione was converted to estrogen and stimulated tumor growth. When tumor volumes were approximately 300 mm3, the animals were grouped for continued supplementation with androstenedione only (control) or for treatment with letrozole 10 microg per day (long-term), tamoxifen 100 microg per day (long-term), letrozole alternating to tamoxifen (4-week rotation), tamoxifen alternating to letrozole (4-week rotation), or a combination of the two drugs. Tumors of control mice had doubled in volume in 3-4 weeks. In mice treated with tamoxifen and the combination, tumor doubling time was significantly shorter (16 and 18 weeks, respectively) than with letrozole (34 weeks). Furthermore, alternating letrozole and tamoxifen treatment every 4 weeks was less effective than letrozole alone. Tumors doubled in 17-18 weeks when the starting treatment was tamoxifen and in 22 weeks when the starting treatment was letrozole. Tumors progressing on tamoxifen remained sensitive to second-line therapy with letrozole (10 microg per day). However, when mice with letrozole-resistant tumors were switched to antiestrogen treatment, tumors did not respond to tamoxifen (100 microg per day) or faslodex (1 mg per day). This suggests that advanced breast cancers treated with letrozole may be insensitive to subsequent second-line hormonal agents. Thus, although letrozole was determined to be an effective second-line treatment option for tumors progressing on tamoxifen, antiestrogen therapy does not appear to be effective for tumors progressing on letrozole. However, response to second-line treatment was observed in a model where tumors that had progressed on letrozole were transplanted to new mice. These tumors had been allowed to grow in the presence of supplemented androstenedione but absence of letrozole. This suggests that resistance to letrozole may be reversible, allowing tumors to respond to subsequent antiestrogens and letrozole.
The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 10/2003; 86(3-5):283-8. · 3.05 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The plasma levels of free estradiol are very low in postmenopausal women. However, concentrations of estrogens within breast
tissue have been reported to be higher than in plasma and similar to plasma concentrations in premenopausal women. One mechanism
by which this may occur is for breast cells to synthesize estrogens themselves and produce high concentrations locally. Thus,
tumor aromatase may be a significant source of estrogen which stimulates tumor growth. To address the question of the importance
of this pathway, we have investigated the expression of aromatase within the normal breast and breast cancers. Because conventional
biochemical assays for measuring aromatase activity require relatively large amounts of tissue, we developed an immunocytochemical
method using a monoclonal antibody to determine the expression of aromatase. The method can be applied to sections of tumors
embedded in paraffin blocks as routinely prepared for pathology. Since we have previously shown that mRNA for aromatase (P450
arom) and the protein are expressed in the same cells of the human placenta, we used in situ hybridization of sequence specific
probes to P450 arom mRNA in breast tissue as one method to verify the specificity of the immunocytochemical detection of the
enzyme. Both immunocytochemistry and in situ hybridization identified aromatase enzyme and mRNA expression in the epithelial
cells of the terminal ductal lobula units (TDLU) and surrounding stromal cells of the normal human breast, and in the tumor
epithelial cells and stromal cells of breast cancers. In addition, evidence for the functional significance of tumor aromatase
was indicated by a correlation between aromatase activity and expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) in the
tumor, and by increased thymidine incorporation into DNA in response to testosterone in tumors in histoculture which had high
aromatase activity but not in those with low activity. The findings suggests that estrogen produced locally is important in
enhancing proliferation of the tumor.
Breast Cancer Research and Treatment 04/1998; 49:S85-S91. · 4.43 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: The effects of antiestrogens, tamoxifen and ICI 182,780, and aromatase inhibitors, arimidex (anastrozole ZD1033) and letrozole (CGS 20,267), on the growth of tumors were studied in nude mice. In this model, estrogen dependent MCF-7 human breast cancer cells stably transfected with the aromatase gene were inoculated in four sites per mouse. Sufficient estrogen is produced from aromatization of androstenedione supplement (0.1 mg/mouse/day) by the cells to stimulate their proliferation, tumor formation, and maintain the uterus similar to that of the intact mouse. Once the tumors reached a measurable size, the mice were injected with antiestrogen or inhibitor for 35–56 days. Tumor volumes were measured weekly. At autopsy, the tumors were removed, cleaned, and weighed. Statistical data was determined from tumor weights. Both antiestrogens were effective in reducing tumor growth in these mice. Tamoxifen appears to be more effective than ICI 182,780, although the former stimulated the uterine weight whereas the pure antiestrogen did not. However, both aromatase inhibitors were more effective than the antiestrogens. Tumor regression was observed with letrozole. Thus, after-treatment tumor weights were less than those of a group of mice at the start of treatment. The aromatase inhibitors also reduced the weight of the uterus, suggesting that these compounds, as well as the pure antiestrogen, may not cause endometrial proliferation, unlike tamoxifen. These aromatase inhibitors may not only benefit patients who have relapsed from tamoxifen, but may be more effective in patients as first line agents for suppressing the effects of estrogen.
Breast Cancer Research and Treatment 01/1998; 50(1):63-71. · 4.43 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Inhibitors of aromatase (estrogen synthetase) have been developed as treatment for postmenopausal breast cancer. Both steroidal substrate analogs, type I inhibitors, which inactivate the enzyme and non-steroidal competitive reversible, type II inhibitors, are now available. 4-hydroxyandrostenedione (4-OHA), the first selective aromatase inhibitor, has been shown to reduce serum estrogen concentrations and cause complete and partial responses in approximately 25% of patients with hormone responsive disease who have relapsed from previous endocrine treatment. Letrozole (CGS 20, 269) and anastrozole (ZN 1033) have been recently approved for treatment. Both suppress serum estrogen levels to the limit of assay detection. Letrozole has been shown to be significantly superior to megace in overall response rates and time to treatment failure, whereas anastrozole was found to improve survival in comparison to megace. Both were better tolerated than the latter. The potential of aromatase within the breast as a significant source of estrogen mediating tumor proliferation and which might determine the outcome of inhibitor treatment was explored. Using immunocytochemistry and in situ hybridization, aromatase and mRNAarom was detected mainly in the epithelial cells of the terminal ductal lobular units (TDLU) of the normal breast and also in breast tumor epithelial cells as well as some stromal cells. Increase in proliferation, measured by increased thymidine incorporation into DNA and by PCNA immunostaining in response to testosterone was observed in histocultures of breast cancer samples. This effect could be inhibited by 4-OHA and implies that intratumoral aromatase has functional significance. An intratumoral aromatase model in the ovariectomized nude mouse was developed which simulated the hormone responsive postmenopausal breast cancer patient. This model also allows evaluation of the efficacy of aromatase inhibitors and antiestrogens in tumors of estrogen receptor positive, human breast carcinoma cells transfected with the human aromatase gene. Thus, the cells synthesized estrogen which stimulated tumor formation. Both aromatase inhibitors and antiestrogens were effective in suppressing tumor growth in this model. However, letrozole was more effective than tamoxifen. When the aromatase inhibitors were combined with tamoxifen, tumor growth was suppressed to about the same extent as with the aromatase inhibitors alone. Thus, there was no additive or synergistic effects of combining tamoxifen with aromatase inhibitors. This suggests that sequential treatment with these agents is likely to be more beneficial to the patient in terms of longer response to treatment.
The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology.
