Developmental assessment of competence from early childhood to middle adolescence.

Abstract

This study represents a developmentally informed, empirically validated examination of competence across multiple domains (Social, Cognitive, Emotional well-being), gender and age (early childhood, middle childhood, early adolescence, middle adolescence). Competence indicators were created and the structure of these domains was tested using multi-method, multi-informant data collected on 191 participants drawn from a prospective study of at-risk children. The results indicated that inter-individual differences in Cognitive and Social competence were stable across time, whereas inter-individual differences in Emotional well-being were stable only between early and middle adolescence. While the strength of stability of Cognitive competence was similar across different time points, the stability of Social competence declined after middle childhood, suggesting more inter-individual variability with regard to change. The findings also indicated that both the structure and the stability of competence are similar for boys and girls.

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Journal of
Adolescence
Journal of Adolescence 29 (2006) 857–889
Developmental assessment of competence from early
childhood to middle adolescence
Jelena Obradovic ´a, Manfred H.M. van Dulmenb, Tuppett M. Yatesa,
Elizabeth A. Carlsona, Byron Egelanda,?
aInstitute of Child Development, University of Minnesota, 51 East River Road, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
bDepartment of Psychology, Kent State University, P.O. Box 5190, Kent, OH 44242, USA
Abstract
This study represents a developmentally informed, empirically validated examination of competence
across multiple domains (Social, Cognitive, Emotional well-being), gender and age (early childhood, middle
childhood, early adolescence, middle adolescence). Competence indicators were created and the structure of
these domains was tested using multi-method, multi-informant data collected on 191 participants drawn
from a prospective study of at-risk children. The results indicated that inter-individual differences in
Cognitive and Social competence were stable across time, whereas inter-individual differences in Emotional
well-being were stable only between early and middle adolescence. While the strength of stability of
Cognitive competence was similar across different time points, the stability of Social competence declined
after middle childhood, suggesting more inter-individual variability with regard to change. The findings
also indicated that both the structure and the stability of competence are similar for boys and girls.
r 2006 The Association for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights
reserved.
Keywords: Competence; Positive adaptation; Measurement; Stability
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www.elsevier.com/locate/jado
0140-1971/$30.00 r 2006 The Association for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All
rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.04.009
?Corresponding author. Tel.: +16126245273; fax: +16126246373.
E-mail address: egela001@umn.edu (B. Egeland).

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Introduction
Since its inception, the field of psychology has struggled to define and assess human adaptation
and development. Historically, however, research has emphasized maladaptation and psycho-
pathology, to the relative exclusion of positive developmental outcomes. Moreover, initial efforts
to examine positive development tended to adopt an overly simplistic definition of competent
adaptation as the absence of psychopathology. Burgeoning interest in positive psychology has
extended early conceptualizations of positive developmental adaptation as the absence of
clinically significant symptomatology to encompass a more dynamic, assets-oriented, develop-
mental view of competence (e.g. Glantz & Johnson, 1999; Linley & Joseph, 2004; Masten &
Garmezy, 1985).
Transcending early deterministic models, the integrative science of developmental psycho-
pathology has advanced our dynamic understanding of both typical and atypical human
development over the past 30 years (Cicchetti, 1984; Cicchetti & Cohen, 1995; Sameroff, 2000;
Sroufe & Rutter, 1984). As the cornerstone of developmental psychopathology, the organizational
theory of development provides a conceptual framework that fosters an understanding of
adaptation as a multi-dimensional developmental process (Sroufe, Egeland, Carlson, & Collins,
2005). In this view, competence refers to the effectiveness and the quality of individual adaptation
as it reflects the adaptive use of internal and external resources to enable the successful negotiation
of developmentally salient issues (Cicchetti & Schneider-Rosen, 1986; Masten, Burt, &
Coatsworth, 2006; Waters & Sroufe, 1983). These issues transcend multiple domains (e.g.
cognitive, social, emotional) and vary both in salience and appearance across different
developmental periods. For example, basic physiological regulation is especially salient in infancy
because it lays the foundation for emotional and behavioral regulation, which take on increasing
importance as the child moves into the preschool period and social interactions with peers become
more prominent. Organizational theory informs how and why we must expect and accommodate
changing markers of competence over time (Sroufe et al., 2005).
Despite a growing emphasis on the multi-dimensionality of competence, extant research within
a developmental psychopathology framework has typically identified individual predictors of
domain-specific competence at discrete points in time. These studies are limited in their capacity to
inform our understanding of relations among and within competence domains over time.
Researchers interested in processes underlying adaptation have begun to examine how various
dimensions of competence inter-relate and change over time (Luthar, Doernberger, & Zigler,
1993; Masten et al., 1995). However, such dynamic models of adaptation are scarce because they
require longitudinal, course-oriented analyses of competence domains, repeatedly assessed and
analyzed in a developmentally appropriate way (Egeland, Carlson, & Sroufe, 1993; Luthar, 1991;
Masten, Best, & Garmezy, 1990). Moreover, the research to date has relied mostly on theoretically
defined domains of competence to the relative exclusion of empirical validation (Sesma, Mannes,
& Scales, 2005). As discussed later, empirically validating competence measures that reflect
developmental change and complexity presents a formidable challenge for contemporary
statistical paradigms that require equivalent measures across time.
The present study aims to address the pressing need for developmentally informed, empirically
validated examinations of competence across multiple domains, groups and time points. It
employs a rich longitudinal data set to propose specific theoretical and empirical processes by
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which researchers can identify developmentally appropriate indicators of age-salient competence
domains in order to examine their structure and dynamic patterning over time.
Competence as a multi-dimensional construct
As defined by the organizational theory of development, competence is evidenced by the
successful negotiation of developmental issues that are widely recognized among members of a
particular society, culture and generation as salient for children of a given age period (Masten &
Coatsworth, 1998; Sroufe et al., 2005; Yates & Masten, 2004). Within Western models of
adaptation and achievement, core dimensions of competence are manifold, as are the tasks to
which such competencies are applied (Havighurst, 1952; Klaczynski, 1990; Masten & Coatsworth,
1995; Waters & Sroufe, 1983). However, social, cognitive and emotional dimensions of adaptation
consistently emerge as central domains of competence. Beginning with the earliest exchanges in
the dyadic caregiver–infant relationship, extending into the social world of peers and, ultimately,
to friends and romantic partners, social aspects of competence remain salient determinants of
adaptation across the developmental continuum (Sroufe, Egeland, & Carlson, 1999). Similarly,
cognitive capabilities play an integral role in early capacities to selectively attend and
independently and persistently explore new stimuli, as well as in more formalized developmental
tasks such as the acquisition of basic intellectual and regulatory abilities in school and in the
transition to work and young adulthood (Blair, 2002; Cumberland-Li, Eisenberg, & Reiser, 2004;
Eisenberg, Smith, Sadovsky, & Spinrad, 2004; Roisman, Masten, Coatsworth, & Tellegen, 2004).
Empirical studies of competence frequently overlook core aspects of Emotional well-being,
particularly as related to representations of the self as deserving of care and support, and as
having agency and efficacy. Yet concepts such as self-esteem, agency, positive affect, enthusiasm
and pride in one’s work are critical determinants of psychosocial adaptation (Harter, 1999;
Henderson & Dweck, 1990; Skinner, 1995; White, 1959). For example, Rutter (1985) has
emphasized that self-esteem, self-confidence, self-efficacy and flexible problem-solving strategies
are all essential determinants of positive adaptation in the face of adversity.
Furthermore, researchers are only beginning to call our attention to ‘‘the existence of overt
behavioral competence along with the covert psychological distress’’ (Luthar & Zelazo, 2003,
p. 539), underscoring the importance of studying both aspects of competent functioning (Luthar
& Cicchetti, 2000). Several studies demonstrate this decoupling of external and internal
adaptation indices. For example, Zucker et al. showed that children of alcoholics who were
classified as resilient in preschool years demonstrated an upsurge of internalizing problems
throughout childhood and adolescence. By early adolescence, they exhibited a level of
internalizing problems significantly higher than the level of non-challenged peers who were
positively adapted in preschool, and indistinguishable from that of vulnerable peers who were
maladaptive in preschool (Zucker, Wong, Puttler, & Fitzgerald, 2003). Similarly, Hetherington
and Elmore (2003) showed that girls raised in divorced, mother-headed households who otherwise
seemed to be especially well-adjusted and socially responsible suffered from low self-esteem and
increased levels of depression and anxiety.
There are several reasons why internal aspects of competence are frequently overlooked. First,
developmental theorists disagree about whether judgments regarding competence should include
internal processes or solely rely on external behavioral criteria (Masten, 2001). Second, due to the
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evolving nature of this competence construct—variously known as internal, emotional or
psychological well-being—the terminology surrounding it remains ambiguous. Moreover,
methods for assessing Emotional well-being are scant and often rely on subjective self-report,
which can be too volatile for longitudinal study of stability and change. Finally, society at large
appears more concerned with the obvious costs linked to overt behavior problems, such as
antisocial behaviors, delinquency and school dropout, than with the less visible costs of individual
internal distress. Nevertheless, the growing awareness of internal well-being as a salient aspect of
competence that does not necessarily track the more explicit indices of adaptation indicates the
need for examination of Emotional well-being as a primary constituent of competent functioning
over time (Cicchetti & Toth, 1994; Harter, 1999; Luthar & Zelazo, 2003; Luthar & Zigler, 1991).
While recognizing the probable multiplicity of competence dimensions, as well as the range of
conceptualizations present within each dimension, this study empirically identifies and examines
patterns of competence in the following domains: (1) Social, (2) Cognitive and (3) Emotional well-
being.1These domains represent core aspects of adaptation, but by no means do they exhaust the
list of relevant competence domains.
Developmental appropriateness of competence indicators
The theoretical conceptualization of competence dimensions influences how competence
domains are longitudinally operationalized. From an organizational perspective, even though a
competence domain may remain theoretically and conceptually consistent over a period of time,
developmentally appropriate indicators may change dramatically across the developmental
continuum. Developmental appropriateness of an indicator refers to the validity of the measured
construct—the extent to which it reflects age-specific manifestations of behavior. For example, in
early childhood the construct of Social competence may focus on initiating and maintaining social
interactions surrounding concrete goals; while later in middle childhood and adolescence this
competence domain may include deep, intimate friendships built on mutual trust, loyalty,
emotional support and self-disclosure (Furman & Bierman, 1984; Hartup, 1992; Newcomb &
Bagwell, 1995; Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 1998). As such, indicators of peer Social competence
in early childhood may include observational data documenting the child’s effective transition
from parallel play to interactive play, whereas in adolescence indicators of the same underlying
competence construct may be drawn from interviews with adolescents about their close, intimate
friendships (Collins & Roisman, 2006; Furman, 1996). In addition to the qualitative features of
competence indicators, quantitative aspects of behavior change in predictable ways over time. For
example, research shows that as adolescents get older, there is a developmentally normative
increase in the time they spend with their peers (Larson & Richards, 1994; Steinberg & Morris,
2001; Youniss & Smollar, 1985). Since appropriate indicators of competence dimensions change
both quantitatively and qualitatively over the course of development, it is inappropriate for
measures to remain the same across different developmental periods.
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1Given that this remains a relatively new area of research with numerous and competing terminologies, we chose to
call this domain emotional well-being because it best describes the constructs that we measured (e.g., self-esteem, pride,
agency, positive affect, etc.).
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These developmental changes present a challenge to researchers seeking to conceptualize,
operationalize and assess competence domains over the course of development. The present study
endeavors to tackle two central challenges of employing a developmental approach to the
longitudinal study of competence. First, we identify developmentally sensitive indicators of
domain-specific competence across multiple developmental periods by drawing on the extant
competence literature and the authors’ developmental expertise. Second, within the constraints of
current statistical paradigms, we endeavor to model and confirm the structure of competence both
within and across the periods of early childhood, middle childhood, early adolescence and middle
adolescence.
Longitudinal stability of competence
Within an organizational framework, development is understood to reflect a process of
successive reorganizations, such that prior forms of adaptation, modified by later life experience,
become hierarchically integrated into new adaptational patterns, yielding a more complex, flexible
and organized system (Egeland et al., 1993; Sroufe, 1979; Sroufe & Rutter, 1984). This continuous
qualitative reorganization ensures that adaptive (or maladaptive) responses to prior experience
are incorporated into later forms of functioning (Werner & Kaplan, 1964) in a probabilistic,
rather than deterministic, way (Egeland et al., 1993; Sroufe & Rutter, 1984). Accordingly,
competence, as an indicator of positive adaptation, measures the extent to which an individual is
able to adaptively negotiate contemporaneous challenges, and it reflects both current
circumstance and the individual’s history of competence with respect to earlier developmental
tasks (Sroufe, 1997; Yates, Egeland, & Sroufe, 2003). The way a child negotiates early
developmental milestones provides a foundation for future encounters with age-salient issues.
Thus, there is developmental coherence over time, such that early competence may facilitate
successful achievement of new developmental tasks, whereas unsuccessful achievement of early
developmental challenges (i.e. prior lack of competence) may compromise the child’s ability to
achieve competence in later developmental tasks (Cicchetti & Schneider-Rosen, 1986; Sroufe,
1997; Sroufe & Rutter, 1984).
As applied to the current study, this organizational framework suggests that systematic change
in both behavioral and emotional competence indicators is probable, but the nature of this change
remains to be further explored. Although some studies show continuity in competence over time
(Sroufe, Egeland, & Kreutzer, 1990), others indicate that patterns of competent functioning may
not be continuous, perhaps varying as a function of outside influences, such as life stress (Egeland
& Kreutzer, 1991). This study examines patterns of stability and change in Social competence,
Cognitive competence and Emotional well-being across four time points, from early childhood,
through middle childhood, early adolescence and middle adolescence.
Structural invariance of competence
Researching the processes underlying adaptation often extends to investigating how diverse
individual and contextual factors affect levels of competence. Numerous studies have explored
group differences, comparing competence averages across various groups of children: girls vs.
boys, low SES vs. high SES, maltreated vs. non-maltreated, high risk vs. low risk and others (e.g.
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