Human development XI: the structure of the cerebral cortex. Are there really modules in the brain?

Abstract

The structure of human consciousness is thought to be closely connected to the structure of cerebral cortex. One of the most appreciated concepts in this regard is the Szanthagothei model of a modular building of neo-cortex. The modules are believed to organize brain activity pretty much like a computer. We looked at examples in the literature and argue that there is no significant evidence that supports Szanthagothei's model. We discuss the use of the limited genetic information, the corticocortical afferents termination and the columns in primary sensory cortex as arguments for the existence of the cortex-module. Further, we discuss the results of experiments with Luminization Microscopy (LM) colouration of myalinized fibres, in which vertical bundles of afferent/efferent fibres that could support the cortex module are identified. We conclude that sensory maps seem not to be an expression for simple specific connectivity, but rather to be functional defined. We also conclude that evidence for the existence of the postulated module or column does not exist in the discussed material. This opens up for an important discussion of the brain as functionally directed by biological information (information-directed self-organisation), and for consciousness being closely linked to the structure of the universe at large. Consciousness is thus not a local phenomena limited to the brain, but a much more global phenomena connected to the wholeness of the world.

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Review Article
TheScientificWorldJOURNAL, (2007) 7, 1922–1929
TSW Child Health & Human Development
ISSN 1537-744X; DOI 10.1100/tsw.2007.256


*Corresponding author.
©2007 with author.
Published by TheScientificWorld: www.thescientificworld.com

1922
Human Development XI: The Structure of the
Cerebral Cortex. Are There Really Modules in
the Brain?
Tyge Dahl Hermansen1, Søren Ventegodt1,2,3,4,5, and Isack Kandel6,7
1Quality of Life Research Center, Teglgårdstræde 4-8, DK-1452 Copenhagen K, Denmark;
2Research Clinic for Holistic Medicine and 3Nordic School of Holistic Medicine, Copenhagen,
Denmark; 4Scandinavian Foundation for Holistic Medicine, Sandvika, Norway; 5Interuniversity
College, Graz, Austria; 6Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Behavioral Sciences, Ariel
University Center of Samaria, Ariel, Israel; 7National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development, Jerusalem, Israel
E-mail: ventegodt@livskvalitet.org
Received January 19, 2007; Revised August 30, 2007; Accepted September 4, 2007; Published December 10, 2007
The structure of human consciousness is thought to be closely connected to the
structure of cerebral cortex. One of the most appreciated concepts in this regard is the
Szanthagothei model of a modular building of neo-cortex. The modules are believed to
organize brain activity pretty much like a computer. We looked at examples in the
literature and argue that there is no significant evidence that supports Szanthagothei’s
model. We discuss the use of the limited genetic information, the corticocortical
afferents termination and the columns in primary sensory cortex as arguments for the
existence of the cortex-module. Further, we discuss the results of experiments with
Luminization Microscopy (LM) colouration of myalinized fibres, in which vertical bundles
of afferent/efferent fibres that could support the cortex module are identified. We
conclude that sensory maps seem not to be an expression for simple specific
connectivity, but rather to be functional defined. We also conclude that evidence for the
existence of the postulated module or column does not exist in the discussed material.
This opens up for an important discussion of the brain as functionally directed by
biological information (information-directed self-organisation), and for consciousness
being closely linked to the structure of the universe at large. Consciousness is thus not a
local phenomena limited to the brain, but a much more global phenomena connected to
the wholeness of the world.

KEY WORDS: holistic biology, theoretical biology, clinical holistic medicine, public health,
neurobiology, cortex, brain
INTRODUCTION
In our quest for a new understanding of the mysterious connection between life, matter and
consciousness[1-10], we have now turned our interest towards the human brain. The structure held
responsible for the structure and quality of human consciousness is the neo-cortex, the only structure that

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discriminates us qualitatively from the other vertebrates. Our motivation for the exploration of the life-
matter-consciousness-link is our finding that quality of life, health and ability primarily is determined by
our consciousness. This discovery has lead us to the interesting possibility that guided shifts in the state of
consciousness and the development of self-insight with a more positive, responsible and constructive
philosophy of life can be used as medicine to help cure patients. Based on this strategy we have made a
series of papers setting the strategy for alleviating healing many different physical, mental, existential,
and sexual diseases and health problems[11-52]. Another motivation for a deep exploration of the matter-
life-consciousness link is the strange fact that “holistic healing” - the healing of the patients total life and
existence, including body, mind and spirit – seems to be closely connected to the patient recovering his
experience of “sense of coherence” (SOC)[53-59]. SOC is actually the experience that one conscious
being is connected to the whole universe though our physical and mental existence[59]; to bring the
patient back to be an integrated part of the world seems to be the fundamental idea of all medicine, the
tratition going all the way back to Hippocrates and his students[60].
Many theories concerning the neo-cortical function are based on the possible existence of discrete
modules in the neo-cortex as suggested by Szentagothai[61]. It is tempting to do this, because the
function of neo-cortex is a lot easier to understand and modulate in a mathematical way. Unfortunately,
evidence does not seem to exist concerning modules in Szentagothai’s understanding, as approximately
300 μ large, discrete columns that are able to make the “building stones” of association-cortex. In this
paper, we discuss the possibility of the existence of Szentagothai’s cortical modules.
Does Evidence for Szentagothai’s Cortex Module Exist?
Szentagothai[62], wrote "It was then (1974) that the assembly of larger tissue complexes from repetitive
units of similar build - not unlike the integrated circuits in electronics technology - became an attractive
conceptual model to explain how such an immense complexity in "wiring" might be put together without
having to make unrealistic demands on the genetic apparatus responsible for this feat in system
engineering". Szentagothai had both the genes and the microchips in his mind, when he introduced the
modular concept into the association cortex. He realized that repetition of a structure coded by the genes
as basis of the cortex development would economize the specific amount of information delivered by the
genes. Even if we do not know of any molecular mechanism of such kind, this is a good idea, because
such copy mechanism does not deal with DNA replication. Instead it deals with supra cellular patterns.
Therefore, we have gradually gotten confident with the description of such phenomena through the
conception of positional information. Analogue examples such as the development of testine-villi may be
described in this way and therefore modules are an attractive idea. Furthermore, genes can be thought to
deliver “continuous modules” (as in visual cortex, see later), and maybe create connectivity in a closely
netted, unlimited, roomy way.
About an experiment[61,63] invented to prove that association cortex is constructed by discrete
modules Szentagothai[61] wrote, “Here at last is unambiguous evidence for really columnar cortical
architecture”. In this experiment, proteins containing injected 3H-amino acids were transported to cortical
areas of the brain. After subsequent auto-photography, these experiments unveiled the finest 300 µ broad
vertical columns in all layers of cortex[62,63,64]. Szentagothai[62] wrote, "It is most interesting to
compare the overall size of the columns with the arborisation pattern of individual cortico-cortical
afferents as it appears in the Golgi picture. Majorossy shows that both the size and the shape of the
arborisation space correspond very closely to the columns, as delineated by the degeneration or auto-
radiographic tracing techniques". Consequently, this column is analogues to the termination column of the
corticocortical afferent. The big question then, is if the identified 300 µ broad termination column
represents the module Szentagothai tries to prove the existence of. Seemingly, he has not found evidence
enough to support such kind of structure[61,62].
Szentagothai supposed that this area had a great convergence. But Goldman and Rakic[63] said:
“Such clear modular pictures as those of the figure[63] are not often seen, because the injections
necessarily must cover many modules that result in agglomerations of the labelled modules, often in

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strips”. This indicates an overlap between the termination columns and why fully discrete modules seem
not to exist. But, of cause, a “half discrete” module represented by the largest concentration of afferents,
cannot be excluded on the basis of this.
In cortex about 2,500,000,000 corticocortical afferents have been identified by Kandel et al[65]. But
cortex has not room for more than approx. 3,000,000 columns of 300 µ in diameter, only enough to
supply approx. 100 afferents to each column. If then a discrete module exists, a great amount of afferents
may terminate within this. Therefore, it does not seem reasonable to take the single afferents termination,
as indication for the existence of superior modules.
Szentagothai supports his opinion, that the primary sensory cortex has a columnar structure, on
evidences from early research[62,65,67]. He emphasized two examples from respectively the somatic
sensory cortex, 1), and the visual cortex, 2), that he thinks corresponds to the potential modules of the
association cortex. However, he realized that the modules are not evident in association cortex.

1) Barrels: In a rodent’s brain, “barrels” exists in the fourth layer of the somatic sensory cortex. Each
barrel contains 2500 neurons arranged around a hollow centre. 100 somatic afferent fibres lead to these
barrels from receptors around the barrels. If a barrel is removed, the other barrels are regularly distributed
and fill out the area where the barrel is missing. This arrangement reminds us of the primates somatic
sensory cortex, where inputs also are recorded in the fourth layer. If some nerve treads are damaged in
this layer, a corresponding re-arrangement to that of the barrels can be realized in this layer, see[65].
Because a rodent only has 50-100 barrels each delivering huge amounts of information, it seems
reasonable that each barrel has an individual discrete representation in cortex. This is a unique exception
of the organization of the somatic sensory cortex[65]. Such kind of organization of the representation only
exists in the fourth layer of the somatic sensory cortex, why it cannot be explained as a cortical column.
Because the amount of barrels can vary independent of the area of the modality, it can be stated that if the
amount of barrels determines the size of cortex, a single barrel cannot be a structural module.

2) Hyper columns: The hyper columns are found in primary visual cortex[65]. In one direction these
are organized in ocular dominance columns, and in the other direction they are organized in orientation
columns. However, we do not think the expression column fits here, because the ocular dominance
column is defined by the termination of the afferent in the fourth layer where they do not make discrete
columns, but instead alternate stripes from right and left eye. Perpendicular to these, the orientation
columns can be defined as serial prisms that separately can be adjusted so their angle is a bit displaced
compared with the prism. But nothing indicates that the line detector is not continuous. Also, the hyper
column is arbitrary defined as a 1-2 mm large part of the cortex that makes up a right and a left stripe on
the one side, and a complete round of the line detector on the other. The colour modality are handled in
“blobs” in layer two and three of cortex[68]. Therefore, it is not likely that they represent the cortical
module. Generally, for instance concerning the receptive field[65], all cells are identical in a very thin
layer of the somatic sensory cortex. Possible, this field corresponds to the “micro-columns” described by
[62,69], of approx. 10-30 μ, but not to the expected “micro column”.

Maybe, cortex is constructed by continuous “modules” as the hyper column that very well could be a
repeated structure coded by the genes, and seemingly, Szentagothai did not find any support for his
discrete modules in this possibility, because the primary sensory cortex did not show any characteristics
of a discrete modular structure. Also in the primary motor cortex the evidence for the presence of columns
is weak (Hultborn, Personally communication), because the structure of stripes can only be distinguished
here, where the organization seems much more to look like the visual cortex, analogue to the ocular
dominance stripes, see [70].

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Other Data That Could Support The Existence Of A Cortex Module
In colouration experiments with myalinized fibres, vertical bundles of afferent- and/or efferent-fibres are
often seen many places in the cortex as reviewed by Williams and Warwick[71]. In LM, the distance
between these is approx. 2-3 pyramid cell diameter (20-150 μ) and approx. 10 μ in thickness, and
seemingly 10-20 of these myalinized axons are seen to loose the myalinization throughout the cortex
(own observations). These “weigot-columns” are hardly Szentagothai’s modules, because 1) the distance
between these is too small and 2) each of the large modules should receive 1000 afferents and deliver
1,000 efferents, and not 10-20. But maybe these10-20 myalinized axons correspond to “micro-columns”
of 5 μ thickness described by Mountcastle[72].
It seems like the outspread termination of mono-aminergic fibres in neo-cortex can be observed as a
gap of around 100 μ[73]. This distance is too little to fit with modules of 300 μ. But other researchers
think that cortex contains non-modular “overlapping columns” of 800 μ[72].
Sensory Maps Seems Not To Be An Expression For Simple Specific Connectivity
The somatotope map shows immediately reorganization[65], when the supplying nerve is cut. This shows
that the afferents terminations happen through a large area, and do not indicate that they are “hard wired”
in a simple way. We can guess that such phenomena are caused by complex connectivity, and find it
obvious to set the organization of the map in connection with the attention and the positional information
that manage the complex dynamics of the morphogenesis.
In the same way, because the thalamus-cortical afferents terminates opposite large areas, the ocular
dominance columns seem to make up a kind of functional organizations[64]. Szentagothai[61] realized
this and proposed that inhibitory inter-neurons adjust the afferents. But such arrangement does not
support the existence of structural discrete columns in the sensory cortex.
DISCUSSION
Implications for Holistic Medicine
Millennia ago, around 300 BC, at the island of Cos in old Greece, the students of the famous physician
Hippocrates[60] worked to help their patients to step into character, get direction in life, and use their
human talents for the benefit of their surrounding world. For all that we know this approach was
extremely efficient medicine that helped the patients to recover health, quality of life, and ability, which
resulted in Hippocrates attaining great fame. For more than 2000 years this was what medicine was about
in most of Europe.
On other continents similar medical systems were developed. The medicine wheel of the native
Americans, the African Sangoma culture, the Samic Shamans of northern Europe, the healers of the
Australian Aboriginals, the ayurvedic doctors of India, the acupuncturists of China, and the herbal doctors
of Tibet all seems to be fundamentally character medicine, re-connecting man to his world.
Interestingly, the Hippocratic and the transcultural medical traditions gave birth to two succesfull
movements in the last century: psychoanalysis[74,75] and psychodynamic therapy[76,77], developed
further into today’s clinical holistic medicine, integrating “short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy”
(STPP)[78,79]) with the many traditions of bodywork (developed further into emotionally realizing
bodywork by Reich[80], Lowen[81] and Rosen[82]) and existential work, today often much inspired by
Antonovsky and the concept of SOC [83,84].
What we have learned by following this long journey of medicine that the grand medical heritage
from the planet’s different cultures teach us to work on body, mind and spirit at the same time; medicine
men of all kinds have always combined talking, touching, and praying.

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The fundamental problem of understanding the connection of human consciousness and health is
this: how do we understand the experience of true connectedness with the universe of a human being, if
the brain is just a computer generating the consciousness? The module concept reduces the brain from
being a pattern-formatting organ under information directed control from the wholeness of the being and
the wholeness of the world, into just being a computer with a pretty isolated function.
The importance of the module concept is seen in the attractiveness of this concept, which gives a
feeling of understanding the brain, at least to a certain level, as a computer, or network of computers - the
modules, in many models working very much like central processing units (CPUs). If there are not
modules and not real structure of the cerebral cortex, only billions of brain-cells firing at their own will, a
highly structured consciousness really is a true mystery. This mystery opens up for the possibility that our
consciousness is structured true our complex interaction with the surrounding world on an informational
level. And this is fundamentally what we need consciousness to be, to understand the extreme important
of the concept of “sense of coherence” for the art and science of holistic healing.
CONCLUSION
When small 30 μ cortical columns are taken from a random spot of cortex, no significant difference in the
amount of cells can be identified. When we look at corticocortical myelinized afferents, no organization
of 300 μ can be identified. When many afferents are coloured at the same time, we can see no superior
columns. This means that the well known 300 μ termination columns from corticocortical afferents
overlaps. Such structure does not support the existence of the discrete module proposed by Szentagothai.
“The “barrels” of the rodents somatosensory cortex does not seam to be modules, and discrete modules in
visual- or somatosensory cortex, does not seam to be discrete. At the cell level, the large basket cell seams
to be independent of, and opposite to, a 300 μ module. The thalamus cortical afferents are shown to
terminate in the fourth layer, independent of the corticocortical afferents termination column. Besides
this, the most corticocortical afferents are shown to terminate laminar (so the fibres from respectively
layer 7 and layer 5 of neo-cortex projects to the same layer). These considerations do not seam directly to
permit any modules. Therefore, we conclude that evidence for the existence of the postulated module or
column does not exist in the literature. There is no evidence for an app. 300 μ large vertically placed
structure that could be able to make up for the cortical ground-unit proposed by Szentagothai.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
These studies were supported by grants from IMK Almene Fond. Our research in quality of life has been
approved by the Copenhagen Scientific Ethical Committee under number (KF)V.100.2123/91.

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This article should be cited as follows:
Hermansen, T.D., Ventegodt, S., and Kandel, I. (2007) Human development XI: the structure of the cerebral cortex. are
there really modules in the brain? TheScientificWorldJOURNAL: TSW Child Health & Human Development 7, 1922–1929.
DOI 10.1100/tsw.2007.256.