Effects of immune serum on macrophage cell cultures infected with Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small colony: morphological analysis by scanning electron microscopy.
ABSTRACT Macrophages are pivotal cells of the immune system and play a key role in the host defence mechanism against pathogens. To date, the importance of macrophages and the role of humoral response in eliciting macrophage activity against Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small colony (Mmm-SC), the causative agent of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), have only been marginally elucidated or are almost unknown. The present study was undertaken to investigate the changes in surface morphology of macrophages after in vitro infection with Mmm-SC in the presence of bovine immune serum. Morphological analysis was performed on macrophage cultures at 6 h post infection using the three-dimensional vision of scanning electron microscopy. Non-infected macrophages in the presence of negative or immune serum and macro phages infected with Mmm-SC in the absence of serum showed only minor cell surface changes. In contrast, clear surface modifications, broad veils, fine philopodia highlighting cell activation and small aggregates of mycoplasma closely attached to the macrophage membrane, were observed in infected macrophage cultures in the presence of immune serum. Our results suggest that specific humoral response to Mmm-SC may contribute and support phagocytic activity of macrophages.
-
Citations (0)
-
Cited In (0)
Page 1
Veterinaria Italiana, 46 (4), 397‐404
© Istituto G. Caporale 2010 www.izs.it/vet_italiana Vol. 46 (4), Vet Ital
397
Effects of immune serum on macrophage cell cultures
infected with Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides
small colony: morphological analysis by scanning
electron microscopy
Anna Rita D’Angelo, Flavio Sacchini, Tiziana Di Febo, Vincenzo Langella,
Andrea Di Provvido, Gabriella Di Francesco, Rossella Lelli & Attilio Pini
Summary
Macrophages are pivotal cells of the immune
system and play a key role in the host defence
mechanism against pathogens. To date, the
importance of macrophages and the role of
humoral response in eliciting macrophage
activity against Mycoplasma mycoides subsp.
mycoides small colony (Mmm‐SC), the causative
agent of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia
(CBPP), have only been marginally elucidated
or are almost unknown. The present study was
undertaken to investigate the changes in
surface morphology of macrophages after in
vitro infection with Mmm‐SC in the presence of
bovine immune serum. Morphological analysis
was performed on macrophage cultures at 6 h
post infection using the three‐dimensional
vision of scanning electron microscopy. Non‐
infected macrophages in the presence of
negative or immune serum and macrophages
infected with Mmm‐SC in the absence of serum
showed only minor cell surface changes. In
contrast, clear surface modifications, broad
veils, fine philopodia highlighting cell activation
and small aggregates of mycoplasma closely
attached to the macrophage membrane, were
observed in infected macrophage cultures in
the presence of immune serum. Our results
suggest that specific humoral response to
Mmm‐SC may contribute
phagocytic activity of macrophages.
and support
Keywords
Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, IgG,
IgM, Immunoblotting, Macrophage, Mycoplasma,
Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small
colony, Scanning electron microscopy.
Introduction
Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small
colony (Mmm‐SC), the causative agent of
contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP),
is localised in the focal necrotic micro abscess
of the lung, in the dense fibrotic pyogranulo‐
matous area and in the infiltrations of
macrophages around the bronchioles and
perivascular cellular cuffs (5, 6, 8).
At the onset of mycoplasma infection,
macrophages, derived from blood monocytes,
are the major cellular component involved in
the defence of the respiratory tract and they
show a tendency to accumulate at the sites of
mycoplasma localisation (5). The outcome of
mycoplasma‐macrophage
determine the subsequent progression of
disease (10). Macrophages not only perform
effector functions, such as receptor‐mediated
phagocytosis, but they are also important
accessory cells of the immune system and are
involved in antigen presentation and cytokine
production (1).
interaction may
Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise ‘G. C aporale’, Via C ampo Boario, 64100 Teramo, Italy
a.dangelo@izs.it
Page 2
Effects of immune serum on macrophage cell cultures
infected with Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small colony:
morphological analysis by scanning electron microscopy
Anna Rita D’Angelo, Flavio Sacchini, Tiziana Di Febo,
Vincenzo Langella, Andrea Di Provvido,
Gabriella Di Francesco, Rossella Lelli & Attilio Pini
398
Vol. 46 (4), Vet Ital www.izs.it/vet_italiana © Istituto G. Caporale 2010
To date, pathogenic studies on Mmm‐SC have
marginally explained the role of macrophages
and their phagocytic
mycoplasma. Moreover, the function of bovine
humoral response
infections and the possible role of antibodies,
as opsonins, able to elicit macrophage activity,
have been partially investigated. Some studies
on Mycoplasma bovis have demonstrated the
importance of IgG in promoting mycoplasma
phagocytosis and killing by bovine alveolar
macrophages and neutrophils (9). In studies
conducted on Mmm‐SC, no correlation has
been observed between IgM and IgG antibody
levels and the clinical/pathological progression
of the disease (2, 11). The current in vitro study
was designed to observe the interaction
between Mmm‐SC and macrophage cultures in
the presence or absence of specific immune
serum. Our hypothesis is that antibodies to
Mmm‐SC may function as opsonins promoting
macrophage activation,
morphological changes.
activity against
during mycoplasma
expressed as
The research was based on the ability of
Mmm‐SC and macrophages to adhere to glass
surfaces; the use of the scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) technique led to a better
understanding of the morphological changes
that occur with macrophage cells. With a
relatively wide range of magnification, the use
of SEM means that the area of interest of a
specimen that had initially been scanned at a
lower magnification can be focussed on with
ease (13).
Materials and methods
Mycoplasma strains and growth
condition
A Mmm‐SC field strain isolated in the Caprivi
region of Namibia in 2003 was cultured in
contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP)
medium (15) and incubated for 48 h at 37°C in
an atmosphere of 5% CO2, had a titre of
108 colony‐forming units (cfu)/ml. The culture
was centrifuged at 4 000 g for 15 min and the
pellet washed and re‐suspended in RPMI‐1640
(Sigma, Munich) with 10% foetal bovine serum
(Sigma) (R‐10). Mmm‐SC survival in R‐10
medium was successfully assessed at intervals
by titration on CCPP agar (15) as described
previously (3).
Sera
The complement fixation test was performed
in accordance with the Manual of diagnostic tests
and vaccines for terrestrial animals of the World
Organisation for Animal
International des Épizooties: OIE) (14). The
Mmm‐SC bovine immune serum had a titre of
1:1 280 (12). The negative serum that had a titre
<1:10 was obtained from a healthy calf from a
CBPP‐free population. To evaluate the possible
opsonising effects of immunoglobulins, all sera
were heat inactivated at 56°C for 30 min before
use.
Health (Office
In order to identify the dominant immuno‐
genic antigens of Mmm‐SC recognised by IgM
and IgG antibody isotypes, the immuno‐
blotting test was performed according to OIE
procedures (14). To reduce background
staining, negative control serum was diluted
1:3; whereas for IgG and IgM analysis, the
immune serum was diluted at 1:80 and 1:10,
respectively. An anti‐bovine IgG horseradish
peroxidase (HRP) conjugated (Sigma, A8917),
diluted at 1:4 000 and an anti‐bovine IgM HRP
conjugated (Bethyl Laboratories, Montgomery,
Texas), diluted at 1:2 000, were used as
secondary antibodies.
Monocyte cell separation
Bovine monocytes were isolated from venous
blood taken in ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
(EDTA) from a naive healthy calf from a
CBPP‐free population. Erythrocytes were lysed
by adding 16 ml of whole blood lysis buffer
into 4 ml of blood and the cell suspension was
left standing at room temperature for 30 min
(7). Cells were centrifuged at 400 g for 15 min,
at 18°C and then washed twice with phosphate
buffered saline (PBS).
re‐suspended in R‐10 medium. Cell count and
cell viability were performed by trypan blue
staining. Flow cytometric acquisition and
analysis was performed using a Coulter Epics
XL‐MCL flow cytometer (Beckman Coulter,
Brea, California) with EXPO™ 32 software.
The cell suspension was displayed by using
forward and side‐angle scatter properties,
following which the percentage of monocytes
The pellet was
Page 3
Anna Rita D’Angelo, Flavio Sacchini, Tiziana Di Febo,
Vincenzo Langella, Andrea Di Provvido,
Gabriella Di Francesco, Rossella Lelli & Attilio Pini
Effects of immune serum on macrophage cell cultures
infected with Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small colony:
morphological analysis by scanning electron microscopy
© Istituto G. Caporale 2010 www.izs.it/vet_italiana Vol. 46 (4), Vet Ital
399
was calculated. The density of monocytes was
adjusted to 3 × 106 monocytes/ml. One ml of
cells suspension was cultured in tissue culture
chamber slides (Nunc) with 0.5 ml of R‐10
medium and incubated at 37°C in an
atmosphere of 5% CO2 for 2 h to allow the
monocytes to attach to the glass surface. The
supernatants were then discarded, cultures
rinsed twice with fresh medium and incubated
overnight at 37°C in an atmosphere of 5% CO2.
After discarding supernatants,
cultures showing morphological characteristics
of macrophages as observed with an optical
microscope, were
Subsequently 0.5 ml of the mycoplasma
culture (Table I: test 1) and 0.5 ml of the
mycoplasma culture, to which an equal
volume of immune or negative sera was added
(Table I: tests 2 and 3), were dispensed into
each of three chamber slides with macrophage
monolayers and incubated for 6 h at 37°C in an
atmosphere of 5% CO2.
monocyte
rinsed with PBS.
Table I
Tests for scanning electron microscopy analysis
Tests C ells Mycoplasma Serum
C ontrol 1 Macrophages
C ontrol 2 Mmm-SC
C ontrol 3 Macrophages Negative
C ontrol 4 Macrophages Positive
Test 1 Macrophages Mmm-SC
Test 2 Macrophages Mmm-SC Negative
Test 3 Macrophages Mmm-SC Positive
Mmm-SC Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small
colony
Finally the chamber slides were washed twice
in PBS to remove the non‐adherent cells and
mycoplasmas. A macrophage monolayer, a
smear of Mmm‐SC culture and a macrophage
monolayer in the presence of immune and
negative sera were used as controls (Table I:
controls 1‐4).
Scanning electron microscopy
The chamber slides and the Mmm‐SC smear
slide were placed in modified Karnovsky’s
fixative (Electron
Hatfield, Pennsylvania) in 0.1 M cacodylate
buffer, pH 7.2 at 4°C for 1 h and then washed
Microscopy Science,
twice with cold 0.1 M cacodylate buffer, pH 7.2
at 4°C for 1 h. Dehydration of fixed cells was
performed in 25%, 50%, 75%, 95% and twice in
100% graded acetone solutions, at room
temperature for 10 min each and were then air‐
dried immediately (3). Small sections (1 × 1 cm)
of slides were then cut and glued onto
polished aluminium
uniformly in vacuum with a layer of
approximately 20 nm thickness of gold. Coated
samples were examined using a Zeiss DSM
940A SEM. Micrographs were recorded as
electronic images and archived on an
AxioVision system.
stubs and coated
Results
Sera characterisation
Immunoblotting analysis, performed using
whole Mmm‐SC cells as antigen, revealed that
the IgG contained in the immune serum
identified a protein panel of 110, 98, 95, 85, 80,
72, 60‐62, 48 and 39 kDa. No protein band was
detected using negative serum (Fig. 1).
Repeated analysis investigating the Mmm‐SC
antigen profile identified by IgM showed that
positive serum recognised the same protein
antigens of IgG except for the fraction of
95 kDa. Results also demonstrated that IgM
contained in the negative serum were able to
identify proteins of 80, 60‐62 and 48 kDa
(Fig. 1).
Scanning electron microscopy
For SEM analysis, control tests 1 to 4 were
observed before tests 1 to 3. In control tests,
most of the monocytes observed under the
SEM had developed into typical macrophages
that adhered to the culture slides, showing
distinct changes comparable
activated macrophages. The cells showed
generally rounded shapes (Fig. 2) and had
undergone certain morphological changes,
such as the light spreading of cytoplasm and
development of membrane ruffling and
microprojections required for glass attachment
(Fig. 3). The Mmm‐SC culture smear showed
rounded or pleomorphic micro‐organisms on a
non‐specific background (Fig. 4). Most of the
macrophages, after 6 h of incubation in the
to natural
Page 4
Effects of immune serum on macrophage cell cultures
infected with Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small colony:
morphological analysis by scanning electron microscopy
Anna Rita D’Angelo, Flavio Sacchini, Tiziana Di Febo,
Vincenzo Langella, Andrea Di Provvido,
Gabriella Di Francesco, Rossella Lelli & Attilio Pini
400
Vol. 46 (4), Vet Ital www.izs.it/vet_italiana © Istituto G. Caporale 2010
Figure 1
Immunoblots illustrate Mycoplasma mycoides
subsp. mycoides small colony antigens
identified by IgG (rows 1 and 2) and IgM (rows
3 and 4) of immune (S+) and negative (S–) sera
The molecular masses of the immunogenic protein
fraction identified by IgG and IgM are indicated for
each row
Figure 2
C ontrol 1: a rounded shaped macrophage
adheres to the culture slides
(Scanning electron microscope 5 000×)
Figure 3
C ontrol 1: a rounded shaped macrophage
adheres to the culture slide
Note the light spreading of cytoplasm and
development of microprojections (arrows)
(Scanning electron microscope 10 000×)
Figure 4
C ontrol 2: Mycoplasma mycoides subsp.
mycoides small colony culture smear
Note the variability in the shape of the organisms
(arrows) on the non-specific background
(Scanning electron microscope 10 000×)
presence of bovine immune or negative sera,
showed a more marked
cytoplasm, large flange‐like processes and
development of philopodia, while maintaining
a rounded shape (Figs 5 and 6).
spreading of
An analysis was performed after 6 h of
incubation with Mmm‐SC.
macrophages showed rounded shapes, limited
cell surface modifications and the presence of
several plasmatic membrane microprojections;
In test 1,
S+
110
98
95
85
80
72
62-60
48
39
S+
110
98
85
80
72
62-60
48
39
S–
80
62-60
48
S–
IgG
IgM
1 2 3 4
Page 5
Anna Rita D’Angelo, Flavio Sacchini, Tiziana Di Febo,
Vincenzo Langella, Andrea Di Provvido,
Gabriella Di Francesco, Rossella Lelli & Attilio Pini
Effects of immune serum on macrophage cell cultures
infected with Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small colony:
morphological analysis by scanning electron microscopy
© Istituto G. Caporale 2010 www.izs.it/vet_italiana Vol. 46 (4), Vet Ital
401
Figure 5
C ontrol 3: macrophage culture following
addition of negative serum
Note the marked spreading of the cytoplasm and
large flange-like processes (arrows) while a rounded
shape is maintained
(Scanning electron microscope 3 000×)
Figure 6
C ontrol 4: macrophage culture following
addition of immune serum
Note the marked spreading of the cytoplasm and
large flange-like processes and philopodia while a
rounded shape is maintained
(Scanning electron microscope 3 000×)
mycoplasmas formed aggregates that were
separated from cells (Fig. 7). In test 2,
macrophage cultures infected with Mmm‐SC,
in the presence of negative serum, showed
similar modifications and free mycoplasma
cells were observed around the cells (Fig. 8).
In test 3, following the addition of bovine
immune serum, Mmm‐SC‐infected cultures
showed significant morphological changes.
Although
individuality, a vast network of inter‐
connecting philopodia between cells, with the
loss of their rounded shape, were seen (Fig. 9).
They revealed the presence of wide veils,
enveloping mycoplasma
philopodia (Fig. 10) and mycoplasmas that
they retained their structural
aggregates, fine
Figure 7
Test 1: macrophage culture infected with
Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small
colony
Note the rounded shaped cell, limited surface
modification and mycoplasma aggregates (arrows)
separated from cell
(Scanning electron microscope 5 000×)
Figure 8
Test 2: macrophage culture infected with
Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small
colony following addition of negative serum
Note the round shape of the macrophage and
isolated mycoplasma organisms (arrows) separated
from the cell
(Scanning electron microscope 8 000×)
Philopodia
Flange-like process
Page 6
Effects of immune serum on macrophage cell cultures
infected with Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small colony:
morphological analysis by scanning electron microscopy
Anna Rita D’Angelo, Flavio Sacchini, Tiziana Di Febo,
Vincenzo Langella, Andrea Di Provvido,
Gabriella Di Francesco, Rossella Lelli & Attilio Pini
402
Vol. 46 (4), Vet Ital www.izs.it/vet_italiana © Istituto G. Caporale 2010
Figure 9
Test 3: macrophage culture infected with
Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small
colony following addition of immune serum
Note the loss of the rounded shape of the cell and
the vast interlocking network of philopodia between
cells
(Scanning electron microscope 3 000×)
Figure 10
Test 3: macrophage culture infected with
Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small
colony following addition of immune serum
Note the presence of a wide and transparent veil,
enveloping mycoplasma aggregates and fine
philopodia
(Scanning electron microscope 3 000×)
were closely attached to the membrane
(Fig. 11).
Conclusions
CBPP is a disease that is transmitted by contact
and the pathogen generally remains restricted
to the lungs causing bronchiolitis and
Figure 11
Test 3: macrophage culture infected with
Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small
colony following addition of immune serum
Note the individual mycoplasmas (arrow) closely
attached to the macrophage membrane
(Scanning electron microscope 8 000×)
pneumonia. The host immune mechanisms,
following Mmm‐SC invasion of the respiratory
tract, are only partially known. A microscopic
analysis of lung lesions revealed infiltration of
neutrophils and macrophages in the alveoli
during the early stages of inflammation,
followed by recruitment of monocytes and
plasmacells (5, 6, 8). Thus, alveolar macro‐
phages and neutrophils represent the primary
cells in the host defence mechanism. The initial
mycoplasma‐phagocyte interaction plays an
important role in determining the progression
of infection and the severity of disease (9).
Macrophages are important accessory cells of
the immune system and are involved in
antigen presentation and cytokine production.
They act as secretory and regulatory cells,
initiating and modulating the inflammatory
processes. Furthermore, phagocytic activity
may be enhanced by opsonising antibodies,
produced as a result of exposure to myco‐
plasma antigens (1, 10).
Studies on the interactions of Mycoplasma
dispar with bovine alveolar macrophages
indicate that their ability to phagocyte
mycoplasmas is strongly correlated with the
production of opsonising antibodies that are
mainly directed against capsular antigens (4).
Mycoplasma
Veil
Philopodia
Mycoplasma
Philopodia
Page 7
Anna Rita D’Angelo, Flavio Sacchini, Tiziana Di Febo,
Vincenzo Langella, Andrea Di Provvido,
Gabriella Di Francesco, Rossella Lelli & Attilio Pini
Effects of immune serum on macrophage cell cultures
infected with Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small colony:
morphological analysis by scanning electron microscopy
© Istituto G. Caporale 2010 www.izs.it/vet_italiana Vol. 46 (4), Vet Ital
403
The results of the in vitro study conducted here
indicate that macrophage activation and
morphological changes observed by SEM are
induced by the presence of Mmm‐SC immune
serum. Macrophage activation results in the
development of philopodia
projections on the cell surface membrane and
mycoplasma aggregation on the surface.
and micro‐
The experimental model suggests that humoral
response, induced in cattle infected with
Mmm‐SC, may support macrophage activation.
Immunoblotting results demonstrated that
IgM and IgG in immune serum mostly
recognised the same protein fractions. The
switching from a primary IgM to a more
specific IgG response, however, may represent
an important step of the immune system
aimed to control Mmm‐SC tissue spread; IgG
may act as opsonins targeting mycoplasmas
and favouring phagocytosis through the
fragment crystallisable (Fc) γ receptor of
macrophages.
The role of IgM in CBPP humoral response is
not clear but immunoblotting
revealed that serum from naive cattle
contained IgM that was able to detect certain
Mmm‐SC antigens. Probably the 80, 60‐62 and
48 kDa fractions identified only by IgM
contain epitopes similar to other micro‐
organisms against which the animal had been
sensitised. IgM are characterised by a high
avidity but low affinity that results in lesser
specificity for the epitope and possible antigen
cross‐reactivity (1).
analysis
Additional studies are required to clarify the
role of B‐cell responses during CBPP infection
and the mechanisms involved in Mmm‐SC
macrophage interaction.
References
1. Abbas A.K., Lichtman A.H. & Pillai S. 2007. C ells and tissues of the adaptive immune system.
In C ellular and molecular immunology, 6th Ed. Saunders Elsevier, Philadelphia, 56 pp.
2. Abdo E.M., Nicolet J ., Miserez R., Gonçalves R., Regalla J ., Griot C ., Bensaide A., Krampe M. & Frey J .
1998. Humoral and bronchial immune responses in cattle experimentally infected with Mycoplasma
mycoides subsp. mycoides small colony type. Vet Microbiol, 59 (2-3), 109-122.
3. Al-Kaissi A. & Alley M.R. 1983. Electron microscopic studies of the interaction between ovine alveolar
macrophages and Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae in vitro. Vet Microbiol, 8, 571-584.
4. Almeida R.A., Wannemuehler M.J . & Rosenbusch R.F. 1992. Interaction of Mycoplasma dispar with
bovine alveolar macrophages. Infect Immun, 60 (7), 2914-2919.
5. Bashiruddin J .B., Santini F.G., De Santis P., Visaggio M.C ., Di Francesco G., D’Angelo A. &
Nicholas R.A.J . 1999. Detection of Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides in tissue from
outbreak of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia by culture, immunohistochemistry and
polymerase chain reaction. Vet Rec, 145, 271-274.
6. C oetzer J .A.W. & Tustin R.C . 2004. C ontagious bovine pleuropneumonia. In Infectious diseases of
livestock, 2nd Ed. Oxford University Press, C ape Town, Oxford and New York, Vol. 3, 2045-2059.
7. Faldyna M., Levá L., Knötigová P. & Toman M. 2001. Lymphocyte subsets in peripheral blood of dogs
– a flow cytometric study. Vet Immunol Immunopathol, 82, 23-37.
8. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 2002. Preparation of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia
contingency plans. In FAO Animal Health Manual. FAO, Rome, 14.
9. Howard C .J . & Taylor G. 1983. Interaction of mycoplasmas and phagocytes. Yale J Biol Med, 56,
643-648.
10. Marshall A.J ., Miles R.J . & Richards L. 1995. The phagocytosis of mycoplasma. J Med Microbiol, 43,
239-250.
11. Niang M., Diallo M., C issé O., Kone M., Doucoure M., Roth J .A., Balcer-Rodrigues V. & Dedieu L. 2006.
Pulmonary and serum antibody responses elicited in zebu cattle experimentally infected with
Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides SC by contact exposure. Vet Res, 37, 733-744.
12. Pini A., De Santis P., Langella V., Ferri N., Scacchia M., Di Francesco G., Tittarelli M., Visaggio M. &
Lelli R. 1999. Experimental infection of cattle with a strain of Mycoplasma mycoides mycoides small
colony (Mmm SC ). In C OST Action 826 International Symposium: Mycoplasmas of ruminants,
2-4 J une, Toulouse. European C ommission, Brussels, 93.
Page 8
Effects of immune serum on macrophage cell cultures
infected with Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small colony:
morphological analysis by scanning electron microscopy
Anna Rita D’Angelo, Flavio Sacchini, Tiziana Di Febo,
Vincenzo Langella, Andrea Di Provvido,
Gabriella Di Francesco, Rossella Lelli & Attilio Pini
404
Vol. 46 (4), Vet Ital www.izs.it/vet_italiana © Istituto G. Caporale 2010
13. Stadtländer H. 2007. Scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy of
mollicutes: challenges and opportunities. In Modern research and educational topics in microscopy.
Series 2 (A. Méndez-Vilas & J . Díaz, eds). Formetex, Badajoz, 122-131.
14. World Organisation for Animal Health (Office International des Épizooties: OIE) 2008. C ontagious
bovine pleuropneumonia. In Manual of diagnostic tests and vaccines for terrestrial animals, 6th Ed.
OIE, Paris, 712-724.
15. World Organisation for Animal Health (Office International des Épizooties: OIE) 2008. C ontagious
bovine pleuropneumonia. In Manual of diagnostic tests and vaccines for terrestrial animals, 6th Ed.
OIE, Paris, 1000-1003.
View other sources
Hide other sources
-
Available from Rossella Lelli · 7 May 2013
-
Available from izs.it