Malthusian overfishing in Pulau Banggi?

Abstract

We assess, based on fisheries and interview data collected on-site, whether Malthusian overfishing is occurring in Pulau Banggi, Sabah. Fisheries resources in Pulau Banggi have been perceived to be declining over the past 20 years, and characteristics of Malthusian overfishing are evident, although not at a magnitude comparable with other more heavily exploited artisanal fisheries in the Philippines. It appears that Pulau Banggi's reef fisheries are at an early stage of Malthusian overfishing, and this is therefore a critical time for addressing and mitigating drivers of overfishing to prevent inevitable and further decline of Pulau Banggi's reef fisheries.

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Marine Policy 31 (2007) 451–457
Malthusian overfishing in Pulau Banggi?
Louise Teh?, U. Rashid Sumaila
Fisheries Economics Research Unit, Fisheries Centre, University of British Columbia, 2202 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4
Received 26 August 2006; received in revised form 9 December 2006; accepted 4 January 2007
Abstract
We assess, based on fisheries and interview data collected on-site, whether Malthusian overfishing is occurring in Pulau Banggi, Sabah.
Fisheries resources in Pulau Banggi have been perceived to be declining over the past 20 years, and characteristics of Malthusian
overfishing are evident, although not at a magnitude comparable with other more heavily exploited artisanal fisheries in the Philippines.
It appears that Pulau Banggi’s reef fisheries are at an early stage of Malthusian overfishing, and this is therefore a critical time for
addressing and mitigating drivers of overfishing to prevent inevitable and further decline of Pulau Banggi’s reef fisheries.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Reef fisheries; Banggi; Sabah; Malthusian overfishing
1. Introduction
The concept of Malthusian overfishing was introduced
by Pauly et al. [1] to describe the overexploitation of
tropical coastal fisheries being carried out by poor fishers in
an effort to maintain their incomes and source of animal
protein. This form of overfishing remains particularly
prevalent in the developing nations of Southeast Asia,
where it has taken a firm foothold in the region’s numerous
small-scale, artisanal fisheries [2,3].
Malthusian overfishing captures the socio-economic
environment in which fishing occurs, pointing to poverty,
population growth, and the lack of alternative livelihoods
as the main factors driving the overexploitation of fisheries
resources in Southeast Asia [1,4], and by extension, other
developing countries. Overfishing, including habitat dama-
ging fishing practices, is further exacerbated by the
ineffective management, if any, of many tropical small-
scale fisheries [3].
Identifying whether a fishery is experiencing Malthusian
overfishing is important because it can provide an impetus
for implementing precautionary management measures
that can help direct the course towards ecologically
and socio-economically sustainable fisheries. This study
investigates whether the reef fisheries of Pulau1Banggi,
which have not been actively managed before, have
reached a state of Malthusian overfishing. We first
characterize Banggi’s reef fisheries in terms of their key
fishery and socio-economic variables. We then quali-
tatively compare these characteristics to criteria pertaining
to Malthusian overfishing as outlined in Pauly [5], and
end with some suggested actions needed to alleviate or
mitigate this form of overfishing in Banggi. This is
particularly relevant to Banggi because the northern
region of Sabah, including Banggi, has recently been
proposed for the establishment of a marine park, the Tun
Mustapha Park.
2. Background
2.1. Study site
Pulau Banggi (71140N, 1171100E) is situated off the
northern tip of Sabah, East Malaysia (Fig. 1), and is
bounded by the South China Sea to the west, and the Sulu
Sea to the east. Banggi is the biggest island in Malaysia,
covering a total area of 700km2, with a coastline of 420km
[6]. The nearest mainland town is Kudat, which is about
30km across the Banggi Channel.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
www.elsevier.com/locate/marpol
0308-597X/$-see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2007.01.001
?Corresponding author. Tel.: +16048221636; fax: +16048228934.
E-mail address: l.teh@fisheries.ubc.ca (L. Teh).
1Pulau is the Malay word for island.

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This study focuses on southern Banggi, with the research
base located in Karakit, the administrative centre and main
entry point to the island. Together with the adjoining
villages of Singgahmata and Perpaduan, Karakit comprises
the population centre and main socio-economic hub of
southern Banggi.
2.2. Reef fisheries of Pulau Banggi
In this study, reef fisheries refer to the capture of both
demersal reef fish, as well as reef-associated and coastal
species such as scombrids and carangids. A detailed
description of Banggi’s reef fisheries can be found in
Teh et al. [7]. Briefly, the reef fisheries of Banggi are small-
scale, artisanal, and can be considered open access with
virtually no regulation in place. Although there are daily
marine patrols by the Malaysian army, which somewhat
deter the occurrence of destructive fishing practices, blast
and cyanide fishing are still common practices at the study
site [8,9].
Fishing is done with traditional gears, with hook and line
and gillnets being the two most important fishing gears in
terms of landings [7]. Other fishing methods include the use
of traps, jigs, spears or spear guns, and explosives and
cyanide. Fishing seasons are influenced by the severity of
monsoon winds. The windy southwest (SW) monsoon
period starting around June and lasting until September is
considered the low fishing season. A second low fishing
period occurs roughly between December and February,
when there are strong northeast (NE) monsoon winds.
Peak fishing season occurs from around March until May,
during the beginning of the SW monsoon when weather is
the calmest.
The primary fishing ground studied is the Maliangin
area, immediately south of Karakit (Fig. 1). This is one of
four main fishing areas in Banggi, the others being
Kuambang and Sibogo in the east, and Balambangan in
the west. The Maliangin fishing ground is characterized by
shallow reefs 3–5m in depth near shore, and deeper patch
reefs of 15–30m depth further offshore. Different fishing
gears operate at spatially distinct locations (Fig. 1). Hook
and line fishers tend to concentrate around a small offshore
island called Maliangin Besar, whereas gillnet fishers fish at
more dispersed locations around the coast and other
offshore islands.
There is an active live reef fish trade (LRFT) operating in
southern Banggi. This involves the capture of live fish, of
which coral grouper (Plectropomus spp.) is the primary
target. Live fish caught in the Maliangin area are sold to a
holding cage in Perpaduan village, and these are eventually
sold to Kudat, the centre of the LRFT in Sabah [10,11].
Due to the high economic value of live coral grouper, these
fish are intensely targeted by fishers during the SW
monsoon months, during which their catches peak.
2.3. Coastal communities of Banggi
The current population of Banggi is estimated at
between 18,000 [11] and 20,000 [12], with around 1100
inhabitants in the vicinity of the study site [7]. There are
around 90 fishers in the main fishing villages in proximity
to Karakit, i.e., Singgahmata, Perpaduan, Patanunam, and
Maliangin Besar. In Kobong and Lumais, two other
villages whose fishers frequent the Maliangin fishing
grounds, there are approximately 40–50 fishers [13].
Banggi remains relatively under-developed, and coastal
households are considerably below the Sabah monthly
poverty line income of RM 633 [12], or approximately
USD 167. Fishing, on which these communities continue to
depend heavily on for food and income, accounts for about
70% of the island’s economic activity [12].
The population growth rate in Banggi is approximately
4.4% [12] per year, which is substantially higher than the
2003 national rate of 1.6% [14]. North Sabah’s proximity
to the Philippine border has attracted many illegal
immigrants to Kudat and Banggi, many of whom are
fishers, and thus increase the pressure on coastal fisheries
resources. In fact, illegal transient fishers are estimated to
make up 28% of the total fisher population in the
Sulu–Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME) area of Sabah
[11], which consists of the northern and eastern parts of
Sabah that are bounded by the Sulu and Sulawesi Seas
(including Banggi). In 1999, roughly 17% of Banggi’s
residents were believed to be illegal immigrants [15].
3. Methods
Field work to collect primary data was conducted by the
first author in 2004 and 2005. The first field season lasted 6
weeks during the SW monsoon windy period in June and
August 2004 (Period 1). The second field season was
another 6 weeks during the end phase of the NE monsoon
in March and April 2005 (Period 2).
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 1. Map showing southern Banggi fishing grounds with inset map
showing Pulau Banggi located off the north coast of Sabah.
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452

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3.1. Fishery data
Fishery data were collected for the hook and line and
gillnet fisheries, which, according to the two main fish
buyers in southern Banggi, accounted for the majority of
fish captured for sale in Banggi. These data were collected
by monitoring catch landings and surveying fishing
grounds. Surveys of the Maliangin fishing grounds were
conducted three times a week when weather permitted,
between 7:30 and 11:00 a.m., when it was most likely that
fishers would have caught some fish, and before they
started to head back to land. Fishers were randomly
stopped and the following was recorded: (a) gear type; (b)
quantity of fish caught (weight was estimated by the
researcher’s boat operator, who is also an experienced
fisher); (c) number of hours fished; and (d) species caught.
Fish landings during Period 1 were recorded at the two
main fish traders’ sites at Karakit and Singgahmata from
June 16 to July 6, and from August 7th to August 27th,
2004. This data collection period corresponded to the low
fishing season, and was considered representative of the
catch and effort for that particular time period as no
extraordinary events occurred to indicate otherwise.
Gillnet fishers landed their catch at the Karakit site
between 8:30 and 11:00 p.m. The landing site was
continuously monitored during these times, and all catches
that were landed were recorded. Hook and line catches
were landed more sporadically at the Singgahmata site,
therefore sampling at this site was more opportunistic. The
majority of sampled hook and line catches during Period 1
was taken during the fishing grounds surveys.
Catch landings in Period 2 were recorded from March 6
to April 12, 2005. This was supposed to represent the calm
weather period, but the continuation of strong NE winds
might have caused catches to be lower than normal.
Receipts covering parts of mid-April to May 2005 (Period
3), which is typically the peak fishing season, were kindly
supplied by the two main fish traders. As it was not
possible to record unsuccessful fishing trips for the gillnet
fishery, and zero catches for the hook and line fishery were
not recorded consistently, only non-zero catches will be
included for the ensuing analysis.
3.2. Interviews
Semi-structured interviews were conducted in villages
where fishers were known to frequent the Maliangin fishing
ground. During these interviews, questions pertaining to
catch, effort, target species, historical trends, and fishing
knowledge were asked. Fishers were given a lot of breadth
in answering the questions, and those who brought up new
topics or elaborated on certain questions were allowed to
do so. As such, not all interviews followed the same
questionnaire format, and the number of respondents
varied for each question. When reporting these interview
data, the number of total respondents to specific questions
is indicated in brackets.
During Period 1, 20 fishers, two fish traders, and three
village leaders were interviewed. These interviews were
conducted in Malay, and took place in the villages of
Karakit, Perpaduan, Singgahmata, Maliangin Besar, and
Lok Tohog. Two interviews were conducted with fisheries
officers in the Kota Kinabalu and Kudat Department of
Fisheries branches. In addition, a participatory approach
[16], in which the first author joined in fishing trips and reef
gleaning activities, was undertaken as a means of further-
ing knowledge about local fishing practices. During Period
2, a total of 30 additional interviews were conducted with
fishers in the villages of Perpaduan, Maliangin Besar,
Kobong, Lumais, and Patanunam. Altogether, the number
of interviews in 2004 and 2005 represented roughly
30–40% of the total fisher population in these villages.
3.3. Malthusian overfishing
Pauly [5] listed a set of characteristics that typically
indicate the presence of Malthusian overfishing in a fishery.
These features include:
(1) an increasing number of fishers;
(2) decrease in catch and income per fisher;
(3) evidence of biological and ecological overfishing;
(4) economic overfishing;
(5) breakdown of traditional management strategies;
(6) non-enforcement of management regulations;
(7) entry of new fishers with no fishing tradition;
(8) increasing or common use of destructive gears;
(9) women increasingly generating the bulk of family
income.
—Modified from Pauly [5].
We assess whether the above criteria are met for the reef
fisheries of Pulau Banggi. Based on our assessment, we
come to a conclusion of whether or not Malthusian
overfishing is occurring in Banggi.
4. Results and analysis
4.1. Catch composition
The species composition for both hook and line and
gillnet fisheries varied seasonally, but consisted mainly of
carnivorous fish throughout the year [13]. The main
families caught by using hook and line during all three
sampling seasons were the groupers (Serranidae), emperors
(Lethrinidae), snappers (Lutjanidae), tunas and mackerels
(Scombridae), and trevallies (Carangidae). The average
proportion of each main fish group in the catch, over all
sampling periods, is given in Table 1. The two main target
species for the hook and line fishery were coral grouper
(Plectropomus spp.) and Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus
commerson), which were caught during the SW and NE
monsoon periods, respectively. During the coral grouper
season in Period 1, coral groupers were caught in 28% of
ARTICLE IN PRESS
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sampled catches. During Periods 2 and 3, which corre-
sponded to the end of the Spanish mackerel season,
Spanish mackerel was present in 28% of all recorded
catches as well.
Gillnet landings consisted mainly of trevallies (Carangi-
dae), demersal reef fish (Lethrinidae, Lutjanidae, and
Haemulidae), and tunas and mackerels (Scombridae).
There were no specific target species for the gillnet fishery,
although trevallies and Spanish mackerel were preferred
for their higher price per unit weight. The average
proportion of each group in the catch, over all sampling
periods, is given in Table 1.
When compared to other artisanal reef fisheries in
Southeast Asia in terms of fishery characteristics, Banggi
appears to be in relatively good shape. The species
composition of both hook and line and gillnet landings
comprises mainly of higher trophic level, carnivorous fish.
This is in contrast to overfished coral reef ecosystems where
top predatory species have been removed, and fishery
catches consist of mostly herbivorous or planktivorous
species [17].
4.2. Catch quantity
Mean catch for the hook and line fishery was lowest in
Period 1 at 7.177.6kgfisher?1day?1, and increased by up
to 63% during the subsequent two sampling periods (Table
2). Mean gillnet catches were also lowest in Period 1 at
14.8712.7kgfisher?1day?1, and increased by up to 27%
during the two ensuing sampling periods (Table 2).
Estimated catch per unit effort (CPUE) for Period 1,
which was the sampling period with lowest recorded
catches, was still substantially higher than CPUE recorded
at two artisanal reef fisheries that were considered to be
overexploited: Semporna in southeast Sabah and Malali-
son Island in the Philippines (Table 3). This implies that
southern Banggi’s reef fisheries might not be overfished to
the same extent as the other two locations.
4.3. Profitability of fishing
Profitability, which is defined here as the ratio between
net income and gross revenue (i.e. the net return from
fishing after deducting all fishing related costs), was
estimated for the hook and line and gillnet fisheries for
each sampling season (Table 4). It is noted that labour cost
was not accounted for in this analysis because of the lack of
alternative employment opportunities on Pulau Banggi;
therefore, it was considered reasonable to assume that the
opportunity cost of labour was zero.
Profitability for both hook and line and gillnet fisheries
was lowest during Period 1, at 33% and 49%, respectively
(Table 4). The profitability of hook and line fishing was
lower than gillnet in all seasons. However, hook and line
profitability in Periods 2 and 3 could potentially surpass
that of gillnet by approximately 10% (from 62% to 74%),
if revenue from coral grouper sales were included [13].2The
biggest gap between gear incomes occurred during the
windy SW monsoon period in Period 1, when fishing by
gillnet yielded 16% higher profitability than by hook and
line.
The above analysis indicates that fishing still appears to
be a profitable activity in southern Banggi. Consequently,
criteria (4): economic overfishing, does not seem to apply
to Banggi’s reef fisheries. However, this analysis might be
an overly optimistic outlook of the real economic situation.
A key contributor to the high profitability is that
opportunity cost of labour is assumed to be zero. In
absolute terms, fishers are still very poor, with net income
levels below the poverty line [12]. It is not clear whether
individual real income levels have decreased, since fishers
indicate that decreased catches have been offset by higher
fish prices. Nevertheless, fishers often face financial
difficulties during the low fishing season [13,19], but due
to the lack of alternative employment, fishers will likely
continue to fish until the last fish is caught, virtually. This
behaviour is inherently linked to the issue of discounting,
wherein poverty and uncertainty result in too much weight
being put on receiving benefits from marine ecosystems
now rather than in the future [20], thus resulting in extreme
overexploitation.
4.4. Historical trends
Eleven out of 22 fishers indicated that individual
catch rates had declined by three to four times since the
1980s. Notably, 67% (18 out of 27) of fishers pointed out
that noticeable decrease in catch rates occurred only since
2000. According to fisher interview data, catch rates of
coral grouper (Plectropomus spp.) by hook and line
appeared to have declined by 12 times since the 1970s,
while catch rates by trap declined by six times since the
1980s (Fig. 2). At the same time, prices of coral grouper
increased as catch rates decreased (Fig. 2). Fishers also
reported that the capture of two premium LRFT species,
the humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) and humpback
grouper (Cromileptes altivelis) was extremely rare in the
Maliangin area now. Underwater visual surveys support
this claim [8,9].
With the exception of the two previously mentioned live
reef species, fishers reported no change in the type of
species caught now, compared to before; thus large-scale
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 1
Catch composition (%) by major fish families/groups
Gear Major fish families/groups
Demersal reef fish Carangidae Scombridae
Hook and line
Gillnet
51
36
26
38
18
12
2Receipts in April–May 2005 did not include potential coral grouper
sales, which would have been sold to a separate live fish operation.
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ecosystem overfishing does not appear to have occurred.
However, captured fish were considered to be smaller now
(65% of respondents, n ¼ 17), a potential sign of growth
overfishing. In addition, fishers said that they now have to
travel to reefs further offshore in order to catch fish,
whereas they used to fish directly from shore. The trends
described above suggest that criteria (2): decrease in catch
per fisher, and (3): evidence of biological and ecological
overfishing, are applicable to Banggi’s reef fisheries.
The fishers attributed the temporal decline in catch rates
to an overall increase in fishing effort, as the number of
fishers around southern Banggi had increased substantially
from before. This satisfies criteria (1): an increasing
number of fishers, while the continuing trend of new
fishers arriving in Banggi over the last 20 years also satisfies
criteria (7): entry of new fishers with no fishing tradition, to
a certain extent. It is unlikely that all the new fishers who
arrived in Banggi lacked prior fishing tradition, as many of
them were fishers from fishing communities in southern
Philippine islands such as Balabac, Tawi-Tawi, and
Cagayan de Sulu [19].
Fishers blamed the relatively recent and noticeable
decrease in catches to the increased frequency and number
of purse seine fishing vessels encroaching on traditional
near-shore fishing grounds.3These allegations coincide
with the increase in licensed seine net vessels operating in
Kudat since 1992 [21]. The apparent lack of enforcement of
the traditional fishing zone regulation indicates that criteria
(6): non-enforcement of management regulations, applies
to Banggi. Moreover, fishers also blamed blast and cyanide
fishing for causing the decline in fish, indicating that
criteria (8): increasing or common use of destructive gears
is applicable. Blast fishing is used to obtain bait fish for
fishing and as feed for live fish kept in cages, while cyanide
is used to stun and capture live fish.
We find that two criteria are not relevant to Banggi’s
reef fisheries. Firstly, (5): breakdown in traditional
management scheme is inapplicable since to our knowl-
edge, there is no traditional fisheries management in
Banggi. Yet, the fact that such a system does not exist
could be one of the contributing factors for the presence of
Malthusian overfishing. Secondly, criteria (9): women
generating most of the family income, is not common in
Banggi, where fishing, done mostly by men, is still the
major source of household income. However, many Banggi
youths who work in urban Malaysian towns and cities do
constitute a source of non-fishing income to fishing
households in Banggi. In this way, they indirectly subsidize
fishers to continue fishing, much as women generating
household income would do [3].
In summary, our analysis shows that 6 out of 9 criteria
for Malthusian overfishing criteria are applicable to
Banggi’s reef fisheries, although not at a magnitude
comparable with other more heavily exploited artisanal
fisheries (e.g. [22]). Taking into account the comparatively
good catch rates and species composition recorded,
Banggi’s reef fisheries can be considered to be at an early
stage of Malthusian overfishing.
4.5. Potential solutions for malthusian overfishing?
Fisheries management tools such as gear restrictions and
total allowable catches (TACs), including individual
transferable quotas or ITQs [23] and territorial use rights
in fisheries or TURFs [24], have been used in managing the
fisheries of other countries. However, implementing these
policies requires substantial fisheries data and expertise
[25], as well as capacity for monitoring and enforcement—
none of which are currently available in Banggi. Further-
more, the use of such fisheries management tools are not a
realistic option for Banggi given the coastal communities’
poverty, high population growth, and reliance on fishing
for food and income. Thus, strategies to limit or decrease
fishing effort in Banggi should also encompass broad socio-
economic policies [26]. This implies that eliminating
Malthusian overfishing falls within the larger context of
integrated coastal zone management. A starting point for
potential management policies would include, but not be
limited, to the following:
(1) development of suitable non-marine resource extractive
industries, e.g. sustainable tourism or aquaculture
(for instance, clam farming), and small scale agriculture.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 2
Daily catch weights (mean7SD and median (kgday?1)) for hook and line and gillnet fisheries in three sampling periods
Gear Period 1Period 2Period 3
MeanMedianMean MedianMean Median
Hook and line
Gillnet
7.177.6
14.8712.7
4.1
11.5
11.279.5
16.4714.8
6.8
11
11.6712.2
18.8724.0
8.8
11
Table 3
Comparison of mean catch per unit effort (kgfisherh?1) by site
GearSouth BanggiSempornaa
Malalison Islandb
Hook and line
Gillnet (set)
1.43
3.85
0.38
0.63
0.67
0.43
aSource: Semporna Islands Project (http://www.mcsuk.org/semporna/
resource/19.htm).
bSource: [18].
3Under the Malaysian Fisheries Act 1985, the zone within five nautical
miles from shore is reserved only for fishing using traditional gears.
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These would take place in conjunction with training
programmes to provide fishers with the required
skills;
(2) community organisation and education to build local
capacity, knowledge, and support for community
managed fisheries and marine resources;
(3) the establishment of a community managed no-take
marine reserve within the current fishing grounds. This
approach has proven successful for fish population
recovery, potential fisheries enhancement, and tourism
development in similar artisanal reef fisheries and
communities (e.g. [27]). It will also serve to focus
attention on the immediate need for limiting fishing
effort;
(4) provision and development of infrastructure (e.g.,
roads, electricity, and sewage) and social (e.g. health
and education) programmes;
(5) tighter enforcement of international border to control
illegal immigration.
5. Concluding remarks
This study suggests that Pulau Banggi’s reef fisheries are
in the early stages of Malthusian overfishing. This finding is
particularly relevant for setting management priorities for
the proposed Tun Mustapha Park, as it highlights the need
to mitigate drivers of overfishing in order to prevent further
decline towards ‘‘wholesale resource destruction’’ [1]. In
order to achieve this, the current drivers of poverty,
namely, lack of alternative employment stemming from
poor economic development, and increase in the number of
fishers, have to be addressed and rectified. This implies that
reef fisheries managers in Banggi will have to collaborate
with a wide range of community, social, and political
ARTICLE IN PRESS
hook and line
catch
trap catch
coral grouper price
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1970s1980s1990s2002-20032005
Period
Mean catch weight (kg per day)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Coral grouper price (RM/kg)
Fig. 2. Present and historic prices (unadjusted for inflation) and mean catch rates of coral groupers using hook and line and traps, as reported by fishers.
Units are kgday?1for hook and line, and kgweek?1for trap.
Table 4
Estimation of net monthly income (RM)aand profitability for hook and line (HL) and gillnet (GN) fishersb
Season/gear Period 1Period 2Period 3
HL GNHLGN HL GN
Gross daily revenue
Gross monthly revenue
Variable costs
Net revenue
Depreciation costs
Net monthly income
Profitability?
17.62
281.92
171.79
110.13
16.25
93.88
0.33
33.57
671.40
320.00
351.40
24.58
326.82
0.49
26.26
525.20
214.74
310.46
16.25
294.21
0.56
42.95
1030.80
357.65
673.15
24.58
648.57
0.63
29.98
719.52
257.68
461.84
16.25
445.59
0.62
43.27
1038.48
357.65
680.83
24.58
656.25
0.63
?Profitability refers to the ratio between net income and gross revenue.
aThe exchange rate on June 13, 2006 is 1USD ¼ 3.68 RM.
bAssumptions for these estimates can be found in [13], Appendix IV.
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456

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organisations in order to initiate the actions required for
long-term sustainable reef fisheries.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge Annadel Cabanban’s support of this
study, both academically and on site in Pulau Banggi.
Thanks to Lydia Teh, who provided field and research
assistance in Banggi, and to the Borneo Marine Research
Institute Seaweed Project staff, who arranged field logistics.
Lastly, we thank the fishers of southern Banggi for sharing
their knowledge.
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