Ethnoveterinary treatments by dromedary camel herders in the Suleiman Mountainous Region in Pakistan: an observation and questionnaire study.

Abstract

The Suleiman mountainous region is an important cradle of animal domestication and the habitat of many indigenous livestock breeds. The dromedary camel is a highly appreciated and valued animal and represents an important genetic resource. Camel herders, living in remote areas, have developed their own ways to treat diseases in camels, based on a long time of experience.
Information about the diseases and the ethnoveterinary practices performed was collected from a total of 90 herders and healers by interviews and participant observations.
The respondents classified the diseased in major and minor fractions. Clinical signs were given in detail. Mange followed by trypanosomosis and orf were considered the most prevalent diseases, and also caused the greatest economic losses. Orf was regarded the most complex disease. The season was considered to have great influence on the occurrence of the diseases. A variety of different treatments were described, such as medicinal plants, cauterization, odorant/fly repellents, pesticides, larvicides, cold drink, yogurt and supportive therapy (hot food, hot drink).
There is paramount need to document and validate the indigenous knowledge about animal agriculture in general and ethnoveterinary practices in particular. This knowledge is rapidly disappearing and represents a cultural heritage as well as a valuable resource for attaining food security and sovereignty.

Full text

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JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY
AND ETHNOMEDICINE
Raziq et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2010, 6:16
http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/6/1/16
Open Access
RESEARCH
Ethnoveterinary treatments by dromedary camel
herders in the Suleiman Mountainous Region in
Pakistan: an observation and questionnaire study
© 2010 Raziq et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Research
Abdul Raziq*1, Kerstin de Verdier2 and Muhammad Younas3
Abstract
Background: The Suleiman mountainous region is an important cradle of animal domestication and the habitat of
many indigenous livestock breeds. The dromedary camel is a highly appreciated and valued animal and represents an
important genetic resource. Camel herders, living in remote areas, have developed their own ways to treat diseases in
camels, based on a long time of experience.
Methods: Information about the diseases and the ethnoveterinary practices performed was collected from a total of
90 herders and healers by interviews and participant observations.
Results: The respondents classified the diseased in major and minor fractions. Clinical signs were given in detail.
Mange followed by trypanosomosis and orf were considered the most prevalent diseases, and also caused the greatest
economic losses. Orf was regarded the most complex disease. The season was considered to have great influence on
the occurrence of the diseases. A variety of different treatments were described, such as medicinal plants, cauterization,
odorant/fly repellents, pesticides, larvicides, cold drink, yogurt and supportive therapy (hot food, hot drink).
Conclusions: There is paramount need to document and validate the indigenous knowledge about animal agriculture
in general and ethnoveterinary practices in particular. This knowledge is rapidly disappearing and represents a cultural
heritage as well as a valuable resource for attaining food security and sovereignty.
Background
Camelids are important and precious to pastoral people,
who rely on them in a variety of ways. Camels provide
milk during conditions where other animals cannot, and
they serve as draught animals in a complex mountainous
ecology [1]. Camel pastoralists live in remote areas, con-
stantly moving their herds. The camels are usually reared
on isolated rangelands with poor infrastructure, where
the livestock keepers rely on locally adapted breeds and
make small ecological footprints [2]. Camelids as such
cause less environmental harm compared to other live-
stock species [3].
The pastoralist way of living makes it very difficult to
obtain veterinary extension services as in western coun-
tries. The allopathic veterinarians are usually trained in
urban areas and inaccessible to the pastoral people, they
are unfamiliar with the pastoralist traditions and termi-
nology, and also have a lack of motivation [4,5]. The med-
ical drugs used in allopathic veterinary medicine are
expensive and not available in the desert [6]. Altogether
this puts a pressure on the pastoralists to rely on them-
selves [7] and to base animal health care on ethnoveteri-
nary medicine (EVM).
EVM has roots from time immemorial [8] but the sci-
entific literature on the subject is new [9-12]. Since the
1970's the number of scientific papers, book chapters, etc
have exploded and EVM now comprises a large body of
written scientific and practical information [13]. Herbal
medicine is an important part of EVM but not the only
one, and the synonym "veterinary anthropology" indi-
cates the complexity of EVM [9]. It is crucial in EVM to
enhance the normal adaptive and defensive functions of
the body because the causal agent may be impossible to
eradicate or eliminate.
* Correspondence: raziq2007@gmail.com
1 President of Society of Animal, Veterinary and Environmental Scientists
(SAVES), Pakistan
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

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EVM is performed by traditional livestock healers [14].
Many herders and farmers treat their animals themselves,
especially if the disease is well known [15]. Traditional
livestock keepers have vast knowledge about their ani-
mals [2], and their EVM knowledge and skills are trans-
mitted orally, from parents and grandparents [16]. This
represents a constant development resulting in a mél-
ange, which is not entirely indigenous but rather"folk"
medicine [9]. However, the EVM knowledge is today rap-
idly lost, due to breakdown of traditional systems for
knowledge transmission. An increasing integration of
commercial drugs into EVM may also pose a threat,
although EVM may well integrate new elements [16,4].
There is a wide variety of EVM treatment principles,
according to the cause of disease, such as cauterization
[17]; bleeding [18]; fuzzing, and minor surgeries; crushed
leaves [19], tobacco leaves and fish waste [20], and oil for
skin ailments; wooden splints for fractured limbs; meat
and grains; grazing/browsing on certain plants; the use of
different ashes including bone ashes, tree tar, wood oil,
mineral springs, sea water, sulfur, motor oil, bone marrow
oil, sour milk etc [21]. The treatments are based on the
ideas that all living creatures should live in harmony with
their environment and need a balance of hot and cold,
work and play, wakefulness and sleep, etc [22]. The reme-
dies differ between communities but many are routine
treatments among several peoples [9]. The same remedy
is often applied to both animals and humans [23]. The
practices in an area are closely linked to the local flora
and fauna [16].
Descriptive studies and clinical trials on EVM in Paki-
stan have been published in the international literature
[24-28] but this is to our knowledge the first one from the
Suleiman Mountainous Region. This region is a historic
area in the Balochistan province, which is an important
cradle of animal domestication and the habitat of many
indigenous livestock breeds. Balochistan consists of 46%
of the national land mass and less than 5% of the human
population of Pakistan. The province is the home of many
pastoral communities and moving herds and flocks of
Afghan nomads.
The aim of this study was to obtain information about
EVM from dromedary camel pastoralist herders and
healers in the Suleiman Mountains.
Methods
Study area
The Suleiman Mountainous Region (Figure 1), is arid to
semi-arid land, receiving 200-500 mm precipitation
bimodal. The region is situated from 29°37' to 31°70' at
North latitudes and from 68°06' to 70°20' at East longi-
tudes. The altitude is 600-1350 m above sea level. There
are five seasons, i.e. spring, summer, autumn, winter and
monsoon. The summer is warm (mean 21-32°C) and in
the winter the temperature drops below 0°C. Rain (and
occasionally snow) falls predominantly in the spring and
the monsoon. Vegetation is sparse and consists of grasses,
shrubs, bushes and trees. Woody vegetation of Acacia
modesta is very common in the mountains, and other
trees like Zizyphus, Olea and Pistachio are also prevalent.
Bushes like Caragana ambigua and Periploca aphylla are
found in the piedmont, while salt bushes like Haloxyllon
grifithi and thorny vegetation of Alhagi camelarum are
found in the plain areas. Grasses, mainly Cynodon dacty-
lon, Fraxinus xanthoxyloides and Stipa capillata etc are
also found.
The human population in the area comprises 0.5 mil-
lion pastoral nomads, belonging to the Baloch and Pash-
toon pastoral tribes. The economy is predominantly
pastoral and the nomadic lifestyle has been practiced for
centuries.
The pastoralists own herds of dromedary camels, cattle,
sheep, goats and donkeys. About 46% of the dromedary
camel population in Pakistan is found in Balochistan, out
of which 30% in SMR (Table 1). The camel breeds are
indigenous; two types of camel are found in the region,
i.e. Kohi and Pahwali (Gaddai) [29]. The infrastructure of
the area is very poor and camels are used for transporta-
tion in the remote areas. There are three major camel
production systems in this region, i.e. nomadic, tran-
shumant and sedentary. Camel shepherds may be hired
for extensive grazing. The socio-economic importance of
the camel is closely associated with the existing produc-
tion systems, which are largely determined by climatic
conditions, topography of the land, plant growth penol-
ogy, water sources, etc [30]. There is no special arrange-
ment of housing for the camels in this area. As the camels
are always on move, they hardly spend more than one
month at one place. They move according to the season
and availability of the vegetation in the area.
Respondents
A total of 90 dromedary camel herders and healers in
Suleiman Mountainous Region were interviewed with a
pre-tested questionnaire. Out of the 90 respondents, ten
recognized experienced healers were selected for a
detailed study of each disease. The healers were in aver-
age 47 years old and all were men except for one woman.
They learnt EVM from their ancestors and by experience.
The interviews were performed during January 2008,
and the ten experienced healers were accompanied in all
five seasons to know all types of diseases and their time of
prevalence. The first author accompanied and stayed
with each respondent to observe and document the eth-
noveterinary practices they conducted. The preliminary
results were re-displayed to the respondents for feedback,
and an in-depth group discussion was conducted for fur-
ther validation and clarification of the results.

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Figure 1 Map of the study area in the Balochistan province. The brush painted line indicates the Suleiman mountain series.

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Results and Findings
The major diseases were evaluated and ranked by the
respondents (n = 90) according to their occurrence, their
complexity and the resulting economic losses for each
disease. The complexity was defined as the duration of
the disease, the intricacy in treatment, the morbidity and
mortality, and production losses for each disease [29].
The economic losses were defined as impaired produc-
tion (work, draught, milk, growth etc), costs for drugs
(costs for drugs, i.e. expenditure in the form of medicines,
and duration of the diseases), enhanced cost for feeding
(feeding charges, provision of supportive therapy and
feeding at home), and caring/labor expenses (caring at
home need special attention and care) [29].
Diseases
The respondents stated that the disease panorama in
camels is limited, i.e. camels do not suffer from as many
different diseases as other livestock. The respondents
have experienced mange, trypanosomosis, camel pox, orf
and "Contagious skin necrosis"/"lymph node swelling"
(dermatophilosis, corynebacteriosis, staphylococcosis)
(Figure 2), which were regarded as major diseases, and
ringworm, pneumonia, "hemorrhagic disease/haematu-
ria", urinary obstruction, "febrile disease", mastitis, wry-
neck syndrome and "poisonous disease" which were
regarded as minor diseases. The occurrence of the major
diseases is given in Figure 3. For further details on the
description of etiology, clinical signs and diagnosis of the
diseases see Appendix 1.
Epidemiological aspects
The season of occurrence of different diseases is given in
Table 2; the complexity of major diseases in Figure 4, and
economic importance in Figure 5.
Treatments
For information about the terminology used by the
respondents on ethnoveterinary treatments see Table 3.
Mange
The treatment starts with washing, rubbing and cleaning
of the skin with sand or other rough material followed by
washing with laundry soap. The scabs and dirt are
removed and the skin becomes clean and red. A mixture
is made and applied on the affected areas. The mixture
can be one or more of the following alternatives:
-Natural raw mud oil (Kattan) mixed 1:1 with Taramira
(Eruca sativa seed) oil (Table 4).
-Wood oil (Zarna) mixed 1:1 with Taramira oil.
-Pulverized fresh chopped leaves and twigs of Loghone
(Daphne gnidium) plant mixed with water or oil.
-Ash from Kirar (Capparis aphylla) wood soaked with
Taramira oil and repeatedly applied until the lesion is dry
and the skin becomes soft and smooth. Usually the ani-
mal is recovered within 1 month.
-Ceiling smoke dust soaked with Taramira oil.
-DDT or Trichlorofon powder added to used engine oil.
Recovery time is one month.
-Tobacco powder dissolved in water. The application of
tobacco powder and engine oil on cracked skin is very
painful and sometimes fatal.
Trypanosomosis
The treatment strategy of trypanosomosis is based on
(the thought of) neutralising the poison in the blood,
awakening the camel's sleeping body and keeping the
affected camel strong and fit. The poison in the blood is
considered to be neutralised with the bitter taste of
plants. To awake the sleeping body of the affected camel,
branding at the base of the ear by hot red iron is prac-
ticed. Supportive therapy to stop the progressive emacia-
tion and keep the affected camel as fit as possible to face
the illness is also practiced. The astringent plant Tharkha
(Artimisia maritimae) is thus recommended. The plant is
crushed, boiled, kept in basin overnight and the extract is
administrated orally as a cold drink once a day early in the
morning. Three to four times treatment is believed to be
effective. A soup of boiled, well thrived sheep meat can be
given orally as supportive therapy.
Table 1: The camel population in different districts of the
Suleiman Mountainous Region
DistrictMaleFemaleTotal
Barkhan2 0984 0786 176
Killa Saifullah6 3694 55810 927
Kohlu24 79623 64748 443
Loralai1 3964941 890
Musakhel6 70813 89820 606
Zhob2 3438443 187
91 229
Source: [33]
Figure 2 Contagious skin necrosis (CSN) on the hindleg of a one-
year-old camel calf. Photo: Abdul Raziq.

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Camel pox
Supportive treatment can be given to affected camel
calves, usually a soup which provides liquid, energy and
protein. The soup can consist of different ingredients
which are boiled and thrived well, and a bowl (almost one
liter) of soup is offered to the affected animal daily until
recovery. The ingredients can be hen or cockerel (hen
soup), head of sheep, goat or cattle (head soup), flour of
Sorghum with spices and chilies (sorghum soup) or whole
stomach compound of a small ruminant (stomach com-
pound soup).
Orf
The strategy is based on specific treatment combined
with supportive therapy. Specific treatment can consist of
pouring warm, boiled water on the animal's head, or hot
branding of the head. As pesticide and/or larvicide, appli-
cation of DDT powder or Trichlorofon in kerosene oil on
the lesions is used, or insertion by a smooth stick with ash
from the burned root from the plant Orgalama ((Rhazya
stricta). Some respondents complain/comment on that
the specific treatment is not very effective against orf.
Supportive therapy can consist of giving hot food.
"Contagious skin necrosis"/"lymph node swelling"
(dermatophilosis, corynebacteriosis, staphylococcosis)
The affected animal is treated to enhance growth, matu-
ration and rupturation of abscesses, and to stop access of
flies to the wounds and discharge; the animal is also given
supportive therapy. Hot food is considered important.
Pulses and cereal or cockerel soup is offered to support
animal health by additional energy and protein. Such
nutrients are believed to increase the size of small
abscesses and facilitate the rupturing of the mature ones.
Spines of a tree (Acacia modesta) or needles can be used
to puncture abscesses with delayed rupturing. Fly repel-
lent like DDT or kerosene oil mixed with used engine oil
are applied on wounds and ruptured abscesses.
Figure 3 Ranking of the occurrence of major diseases in dromedary camels as perceived by camel herders and healers. (CSN = contagious
skin necrosis).
Table 2: Season of the camel diseases as given by the herders
Disease Season Herders verification
MangeEnd of autumn 74%
SurraEnd of monsoon 61%
Camel pox End of spring59%
Orf End of spring52%
Contagious skin necrosis (CSN)Any time of the year 56%

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Ringworm
Ringworm is considered to heal spontaneously but for
treatment any oily material like ghee or diesel can be
applied on the lesions.
Pneumonia
Generally no housing or shelter is provided to healthy
animals in the area, but animals suffering from pneumo-
nia are kept in a covered area, protected from cold
weather by a carpet, rug, or blanket. The animal is given
hot food, and hot drink, i.e. a boiled mixture of black tea
and spices. Dyspnea due to obstruction of the nasal air-
ways is cured by insertion of a stick in the nose to facili-
tate breathing. Branding with hot stones on both sides of
the thorax is performed.
Figure 4 Ranking of the complexity of major diseases in dromedary camels as perceived by camel herders and healers. (CSN = contagious
skin necrosis).
Figure 5 Ranking of the economic losses for major diseases in dromedary camels as perceived by camel herders and healers. (CSN = conta-
gious skin necrosis).

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Table 3: Treatments for camel diseases as described by herders and healers in the Suleiman Mountainous Region in
Pakistan
Local name English nameDescription
Garam KhurakHot food The herder's indigenous veterinary knowledge is mainly based on the hot and cold philosophy
of food. The hot food comprises of soups made of cockerel meat, egg, pulses, cereals and
chilies etc. Hot food is a composite of those nutrients which keeps the body active, energetic
and enhance the activities inside the body. This soup is used for orf, pox and nodes swelling
diseases.
Supportive therapy (hot food), in which hot food (in most of the cases comprised of soups) is
offered orally to keep the animal fit to deal with the disease condition.
Garam chishak Hot drink Hot drinks are used for the treatment of pulmonary problems and febrile conditions.
A composite of the ingredients, which accelerate the biological activities in the animal body
and enhance the secretion of the mouth, nose, and inside the body (GIT). Hot drink is
considered as expectorant, laxative and diuretic. The solution is prepared by boiling black tea,
ginger, and black pepper; sometimes chilies are also mixed. Black tea and spices mixture is also
a hot food, which keeps the animal warm. This solution is mainly used in respiratory problems.
Kattan Mud oilThe raw mud oil is collected from the natural spring in the famous mountain of Chakar Mangi,
in Kohlu district. Kattan, which is thick in nature and blackish in color, is usually used by the
Marri tribe camel herders for the treatment of mange in camel and goat.
ShlombeyWhey
A product of yogurt, when fat is removed by shaking and more water is added. The herder
usually shakes the yogurt to remove fat and make shlombey in a sack (Gharrak) made of skin
(usually from sheep). The solution remained behind is called Shlombey in Pashto.
ZarnaWood oilThe Wood oil is extracted from the logs of Pinus Geranandiana tree. While burning the logs the
released oil is collected in a pot.
KirarA type of tree
Sorr ChishakCold drink Cold drinks for trypanosomosis, food poisoning and poisonous plants treatment i.e. extract of
therkha plant (Artemisia maritima), seed of khamazura (Withania coagulans) and sugar/gur juice.
BotaiMedicinal plantsPlants extract or crushed leaves or twigs, either applied directly on the affected area or
administrated orally.
DumHot brandingHot iron brand or hot stone is applied either directly on the affected area or on the place
considered being affective if branded. This treatment is done in most of the cases where the
disease treatment is not easily recognized. This type of treatment is also called cauterization.
BoijanOdorantOdorant/fly repellents and larvicides etc, in which wood oil, used engine oil, kerosene oil, mud
oil, smoke dust, ash and sometimes DDT or trichlorofons are used. This practice is mainly done
in the treatment of skin ailments and wound management.
DDT/trichDDT/trichOdorant/pesticides and larvicides etc.
ThorkaniCeiling smoke dustFly repellents and larvicides etc, healing effect
ThambakoTobacco powder Fly repellents and larvicides etc.
Ghee ButterEnergetic; softens the area of the skin where ghee is applied
GurSugar/gurEnergetic; cold effect

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"Haemorrhagic disease/haematuria"
The camels are treated by giving orally the ash from ani-
mal bones (any species) and/or with branding by red-hot
iron or hot stone at both flanks.
Urinary obstruction
The treatment aims at to facilitate urination, i.e.
enhanced frequency and increased amount of urine. Dif-
ferent liquids are given orally; a solution of crushed alum
(50-100 g, preferably red) dissolved in water, hot drink
(black tea) or an extract of boiled wheat straw. Another
treatment that is practiced is to keep the camel for an
hour in sitting posture with the whole body but the head
under water.
"Febrile disease"
There is no specific treatment, but to provide heating.
The diseased camel is placed standing between two
flames for one hour (Figure 6). Sometimes a Muslim
priest prays for the camel. As supportive treatment,
yogurt or shlombey is given orally. One liter of yogurt or
two liter of shlombey with salt added is offered 3-4 times
daily to the affected animal, while drenching it with sugar
solution. In prolonged cases, sheep meat soup is offered.
Mastitis
The treatment of mastitis is oil massage of the udder and
to provide heating by application of a hot lump of mud.
Occasionally the mammary vein is bled.
Wry-neck syndrome
The only treatment is considered to be giving ash orally
plus some supportive therapy.
"Poisonous disease"
The camel is treated to reverse the indigestion and the
effect of the poison. Two liters of salt added Shlombey or
one liter of hot drink is given orally twice with four hours
between.
Discussion and Conclusions
The herders and healers in the Suleiman Mountainous
Region have deep knowledge and vast experience of
Table 4: Ethnoveterinary plants used by dromedary camel healers in the Suleiman Mountainous Region in Pakistan
Botanical name Local name Part of plant usedPreparation, dose etc
Eruca sativa
Mill.
[Brassicaceae]
TaramiraOil of the seed The oil is applied on the affected area
Daphne gnidium [Thymelaeaceae]
LoghoneLeaves and twigsThe leaves and twigs are crushed, kept
in a bowl over night in open, and
pasted on the affected area
Capparis aphylla Hayne ex Roth. [Capparaceae]
KirarLeaves and twigsApplied on the affected area
Artemisia maritima L. ex Hook [Asteraceae]
TherkhaUpper parts of the plant500 g is boiled in one liter of water and
given orally.
Rhazya stricta Decne. [Apocyanaceae]
OrgalamaRoots Roots are burned and the ash is
poured in the wound to kill maggots.
The dose depends upon the depth of
the wound
Acacia modesta Wall.
[Fabaceae]
SpinesThe spines are inserted in the wound
Pinus gerardiana Wall. Ex D. Don [Pinaceae]
Zarna Wood oilThe logs of the tree are burned in a
clavin-like muddy structure and the oil
is collected and applied on the
affected area. The dose depends on
the size of the affected area.
Whitania coagulans (Stocks) Dunal
[Solanaceae]
KhamazuraFruitsThe fruits (250 g) of the plants are
dissolved in water and offered in the
morning for trypanosomiasis.

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camel husbandry. They regard camels as hardy and
healthy animals with only a limited disease panorama
compared to other livestock animal species. They are
familiar with the clinical signs of camel diseases and they
can differentiate between many diseases. Living in
remote areas, they have developed their own way of treat-
ing diseases in camels. A variety of methods of treatment
was documented in this study, many of them much alike
those reported from other camel habitats worldwide [10].
Some methods are very specific, e.g. to use Acacia spines
to puncture abscesses, while other are more general, e.g.
supportive treatment to promote health and make the
animal more fit to combat the disease. The respondents
regard ethnoveterinary practices as reliable, painless,
cheap, readily available and easily applicable.
From a veterinary point of view, EVM has its strengths
and weaknesses. Not all ethnoveterinary practices pro-
vide effective or ideal solutions to animal health problems
- no more than does allopathic veterinary medicine [10].
However, allopathic veterinary medicine would benefit
from taking up the holistic and sustainable view in EVM
[22], and also adopt a respectful attitude towards the fact
that herders have their own considerations and social
believes e.g. about the causes of diseases [9], [31]. Many
EVM practices do work and make sound veterinary sense,
and many modern drugs have their origin in EVM
[10,32].
EVM is rapidly disappearing in the Suleiman Moun-
tainous Region and other livestock keeping areas because
of social, economical, and political reasons. Important
factors in Balochistan are e.g. speedy urbanization,
increasing sedentarization, changing livestock systems
from subsistence (extensive) to commercial (intensive),
economic forces and political backing for crossbreeding
with exotic breeds, war and conflicts, increasing competi-
tion for natural resources, environmental degradation
and global warming.
There is paramount need to document and validate
ethnoveterinary practices and other indigenous knowl-
edge in Balochistan, which is an important region
because of the large number of livestock animals, drome-
dary camels in particular, and because EVM and other
Indigenous knowledge is still used in practice. The
launching of regional and international projects like e.g.
the RUBIA project in the Mediterranean countries would
help to conserve and validate indigenous and ethnoveter-
inary knowledge and thus contribute to global food secu-
rity and sovereignty.
Appendix
Appendix 1: Descriptions of the knowledge on diseases,
given by dromedary camel herders in the Suleiman
mountainous region
The local names of the diseases are written in bracket,
where the first name is in Balochi and the second name is
in Pashto
Mange (Gerr, Poon) is a well-recognized and common
disease in the area and one of the major dromedary camel
illnesses. The cold and rainy weather and scarcity of vege-
tation in the early spring make animals weak, hence more
prone to this disease. Mange is therefore more prevalent
in the cold and rainy season, when the animals are already
weak. Animals affected by trypanosomosis are also prone
to mange; because of its weight-loss nature. Mange
affects the fertility and lesser number of calves was pro-
duced in the herds where the mange intensity was high.
The area has cool winter and rainy spring, which
enhances mange. The respondents revealed that the dis-
ease is contagious, widespread, causes poor growth and
production, affects the draught ability, and even causes
the death of the animal in severe cases. The healers
believe that the disease is highly contagious and zoonotic
in nature and transfer even from the rats. During the last
drought period in the region (1994-2004) many animals
died due to mange.
There are two types of mange, i.e. white and black. The
white mange is milder than the black one and covers a
certain area. Animals are itching the body against hard
objects, the skin becomes thick and bald and whitish
scabs appear on it. In black mange the baldness covers
major parts of the body, the skin becomes red-blackish
and muddy, cracks appear and start bleeding, and the ani-
mal become emaciated. The cracks usually appear on the
neck area, which bleeds and invite flies, making the ani-
mal restless. This type of mange is very hazardous, com-
plex and causes fatalities also.
The mange-affected animals are usually rejected in the
camel markets because of the low credibility for work.
The traders know the mange-affected animal very quickly
Figure 6 Camel under treatment for febrile disease (Oshmak).
Photo: Abdul Raziq.

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by rubbing the skin of the lower neck and judging the
thickness of the skin. The affected animals have thick skin
because of mange.
Trypanosomosis/surra (Sokerr, Machwahali) is not
as common as mange but badly affects the draughtability
and fertility of the animals. Loss of appetite, progressive
emaciation, hump disappearance, distinct urine smell,
watery and pale eyes, intermittent fever, rough body coat
and sitting while facing the sunshine are the main symp-
toms. Trypanosomosis is economically important and
affects the animal health and production adversely. Out-
breaks occur after the rainy season, when there are plenty
of flies. The pastorals are well familiar with trypanoso-
mosis and believe that a fly is the carrier of this ailment.
Pox (Groopak, Zazi) is a highly contagious disease,
which usually affects the calves, and outburst in the wet
season particularly in spring. The disease is also known in
the region as the spring's disease. Pox predisposes the
animals to other diseases like trypanosomosis and orf.
The mortality is very low, only continuous off feeding and
secondary infection could cause death. The animal
becomes dull and depressed in the onset of the disease,
gets fever, and lesions appear on the hairless parts of the
skin. The animal goes off feed, unable to eat due to
lesions in the mouth and the lips. The disease could be
differentiated from orf, because in orf the lesions only
appear on the mouth, nose and eyes. Pox occurs once in
life and will never repeat again and the phenomenon is
indigenously called "pokh".
Orf (Duph Pagh, Serpazi) is also "pokh" in nature, i.e.
occurs once in the life. Orf occurs before the permanent
teeth appear. The disease is contagious coupled with
fever and depression. Nodules develop on the lips and
changes into blisters. In advanced stages blisters are
formed inside the mouth and nose. Swelling of the face
and the head is the third and the advanced stage of orf. If
not treated properly, the animal becomes blind and
unable to eat.
Contageous Skin Necrosis (Rindek/Jooling, Daney)
affects all ages of animals but young animals are more
prone. The respondents consider that the disease is good
for the future health of animals, because it drains the
unidentified disease factors with the purulent fluid. The
herders, therefore, offer hot food, to keep the occurring
wound pustules. When the pus is later discharged then
the animal recovers.
The sores usually appear on the soft areas of the body
i.e. neck, shoulders and thighs. The lymph nodes also
swell with the disease. Fever, dry and hard feces, off feed-
ing and emaciation were also observed. Gradually the
abscess increases in size and ultimately reaches the size of
an apple. The large sized abscess bursts itself, but is
sometimes punctured by injecting of a large-sized needle.
Small-sized abscesses evaporate themselves, but take
more time than pustulated abscess. If the abscess could
not grow well it would affect the inside of the body and
the disease will go in hidden form, which will adversely
affect the animals' health. A yellowish viscous fluid dis-
charges when bursts and become pustulated for some
days, in this period fly repulsion is the important part of
the disease management.
Ringworm (Barri, Spooni) is also called "sehsali",
which means "the disease of three years"; this disease usu-
ally comes in calves up to the age of three years, and is
widespread in the herd. White patches starts from the tip
of the hump and progress down to the belly. Hair-loss in
patches and white flour scabs appear on the affected area.
The disease usually come in the early spring and can eas-
ily be confused with mange, but this disease heals itself.
Pneumonia (Kalokh, Tookha) is not very common but
adversely affects the animals' health, especially the work-
ing animal. It is characterized by nasal discharge, cough-
ing and difficulty of breathing. Sometimes the nose is
obstructed due to the thick nasal fluid-like cartilage and
the animal breathe through mouth. The respondents
believe that pneumonia is caused by cold and dusty winds
in the autumn.
Hemorrhagic diseases or heamaturia (Lalmis, Sary
mithiyazi) is not common in the area and only occurs in
mature females. The disease results in weakness and
emaciation of the animal, and the urine becomes blood-
stained. The herders could not explain the disease well.
The respondents have only a vague explanation of the
cause of this disease, some kind of deficiency or kidney
problem are suggested. The clinical signs are described as
haematuria, depression and emaciation.
Urine obstructions (Misband, Mithyaziband) are
mainly noticed in male draught animal. The causes of the
disease are heavy workload, long traveling, dirty water,
severe cold and poisonous leaves of wild olive (Olea offi-
cinalis). The herders believe that the wild olive leaves
become poisonous in the fall season. The animal goes off
feed and water, and loses the capability to work. The ani-
mal continuously tries to urinate but does not succeed,
only sometimes some drops of urine come out.
Febrile Disease (Oshmak, Shumak) is not common
but sometimes very fatal for the camel. The cause of
"febrile disease" is not fully clear to the respondents,
although they indicate that an insect present in the leaves
of trees may be a causative agent. Some respondents
believe that the causes are the evil eye and dirty air. The
respondents describe the clinical symptoms as vomiting,
weakness, emaciation and fever. Anorexia and dislike and
avoidance of sunshine are other signs. Acute death may
occur and some of the respondents consider anthrax as
the differential diagnosis.
Poisonous disease (Marzal, larrama) mostly occurs
after the monsoon season, in the start of the autumn. The

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respondents consider the cause of the disease to be inges-
tion of a poisonous insect hiding in the leaves of the Kar-
kana (Zizyphus nummolaria) and ber (Ziz mauritiana)
trees. The clinical signs are severe indigestion, anorexia,
vomiting and fever. Sometimes the outcome is fatal.
Poisonous plants
The respondents consider three plants as poisonous for
the camel. The local and botanical names are Kaneer/
Genderi (Nierum odorum), Leghunae (Daphne oleoides),
and Orgalama (Rhazya stricta).
Wry-neck syndrome
Wry-neck syndrome is not familiar to the respondents.
Some of them consider poisonous plants and some defi-
ciency to be the cause of wry-neck syndrome. The clinical
signs are described as the neck of the camel becoming
tight and the animal is unable to drink water and intake
food properly.
Mastitis
Mastitis is very rare in the dromedary camel because of
the extensive production system and living in movement
and on the clean lands. Sometimes problems with masti-
tis occur, especially in high producing camels.
Additional material
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
AR was responsible for conception and design, carried out the questionnaire
and observational studies and drafted the manuscript. KV helped to draft the
manuscript. MY provided guidance and participated in discussions. All authors
read and approved the final manuscript.
Acknowledgements
The information reported in this study about EVM in the Suleiman Mountain-
ous Region belongs to the respondents (their names in Additional file 1), to
whom we express our sincere thanks for sharing it.
Dr Evelyn Mathias is acknowledged for valuable comments on the manuscript.
Author Details
1President of Society of Animal, Veterinary and Environmental Scientists
(SAVES), Pakistan, 2Department of Animal health and Antibiotic Strategies,
National Veterinary Institute, 761 89 Uppsala, Sweden and 3Department of
Livestock Management, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, University of Faisalabad,
Pakistan
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Received: 16 March 2010 Accepted: 21 June 2010
Published: 21 June 2010
This article is available from: http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/6/1/16© 2010 Raziq et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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Cite this article as: Raziq et al., Ethnoveterinary treatments by dromedary
camel herders in the Suleiman Mountainous Region in Pakistan: an observa-
tion and questionnaire study Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine
2010, 6:16