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OPINIONOpen Access
So depression is an inflammatory disease, but
where does the inflammation come from?
Michael Berk1,2,3,4*, Lana J Williams1,2, Felice N Jacka1,2, Adrienne O’Neil1,5, Julie A Pasco1,6, Steven Moylan1,
Nicholas B Allen7, Amanda L Stuart1, Amie C Hayley1, Michelle L Byrne7and Michael Maes1,8
Abstract
Background: We now know that depression is associated with a chronic, low-grade inflammatory response and
activation of cell-mediated immunity, as well as activation of the compensatory anti-inflammatory reflex system. It is
similarly accompanied by increased oxidative and nitrosative stress (O&NS), which contribute to neuroprogression in
the disorder. The obvious question this poses is ‘what is the source of this chronic low-grade inflammation?’
Discussion: This review explores the role of inflammation and oxidative and nitrosative stress as possible mediators
of known environmental risk factors in depression, and discusses potential implications of these findings. A range of
factors appear to increase the risk for the development of depression, and seem to be associated with systemic
inflammation; these include psychosocial stressors, poor diet, physical inactivity, obesity, smoking, altered gut
permeability, atopy, dental cares, sleep and vitamin D deficiency.
Summary: The identification of known sources of inflammation provides support for inflammation as a mediating
pathway to both risk and neuroprogression in depression. Critically, most of these factors are plastic, and potentially
amenable to therapeutic and preventative interventions. Most, but not all, of the above mentioned sources of
inflammation may play a role in other psychiatric disorders, such as bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, autism and
post-traumatic stress disorder.
Keywords: Depression, Inflammation, Cytokines, Diet, Obesity, Exercise, Smoking, Vitamin D, Dental cares, Sleep,
Atopic, Gut, Oxidative stress
Background
There is now an extensive body of data showing that
depression is associated with both a chronic low-grade
inflammatory response, activation of cell-mediated im-
munity and activation of the compensatory anti-
inflammatory reflex system (CIRS), characterized by
negative immunoregulatory processes [1,2]. New evi-
dence shows that clinical depression is accompanied
by increased oxidative and nitrosative stress (O&NS)
and autoimmune responses directed against O&NS
modified neoepitopes [3,4].
Not only is depression present in acute illness [4,5],
but higher levels of inflammation appear to increase the
risk for the development of de novo depression [6].
Indeed, cytokines induce depressive-like behaviors; in
studies where healthy participants are given endotoxin
infusions to trigger cytokines release, classical depressive
symptoms emerge [7]. Exogenous cytokine infusions also
cause the classical phenotypic behavioral and cognitive
features of depression. As an exemplar, a quarter of the
people given interferon for the treatment of hepatitis C
develop emergent major depression [8,9]. Intriguingly,
antidepressants, particularly selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors (SSRIs), in vitro or ex vivo exert significant
negative immunoregulatory effects, decreasing the pro-
duction of pro-inflammatory cytokines, for example,
tumor necrosis factor (TNF)α and interleukin (IL)-1,
T cell cytokines, for example, interferon (IFN)γ, and
increasing that of anti-inflammatory cytokines, for
example, IL-10 [10,11]. They additionally alter leucocyte
mRNA gene expression of some immune markers.
Galecki first documented altered expression of mRNA
coding for cyclooxygenase-2, myeloperoxidase, inducible
* Correspondence: mikebe@barwonhealth.org.au
1IMPACT Strategic Research Centre, School of Medicine, Deakin University,
Geelong, VIC, Australia
2Department of Psychiatry, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
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© 2013 Berk et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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nitric oxide synthase and secretory phospholipase A2
type IIA in people with recurrent depressive disorder
[12]. Additionally, inflammatory gene expression second-
ary to antidepressant therapy has been examined, with
lowered levels of IL-1β and macrophage inhibiting
factors seen after treatment, changes which were not
associated with treatment response. However, lower-
ing of IL-6 levels was associated with antidepressant
response [13].
However, clinical depression is accompanied by a “re-
sistance” to these ex vivo or in vitro effects of antide-
pressants attenuating inflammation and T cell activation
[14]. Moreover, remission of clinical depression is ac-
companied by a normalization of inflammatory markers
[15], while lack of response is associated with persist-
ently elevated levels of inflammatory markers [16]. This
resistance to the immunosuppressive effects of antide-
pressants in depressed patients may be explained by
chronic inflammatory processes, chronic damage by
O&NS and the onset of autoimmune responses [14].
These data beg the question: what are the sources of
this chronic low-grade inflammatory and O&NS process
and the source of the resistance to the well documented
immunosuppressive effects of antidepressants? Any pro-
cesses that activate chronic inflammatory and cell-
mediated processes without a concomitant activation of
the CIRS may further aggravate the detrimental effects
of activated immuno-inflammatory pathways. It is well-
known that many inflammatory disorders (chronic ob-
structive pulmonary disease, cardiovascular disease (CVD)
and autoimmune disorders) and neuroinflammatory disor-
ders (multiple sclerosis and Parkinson’s disorder) and in-
flammatory conditions (hemodialysis and the postpartum
period) may trigger clinical depression [17]. However,
these factors are only present in a small percentage of the
larger population of depressed individuals. In contrast,
there are a variety of widely prevalent environmental
factors that are associated with increased risk for the de-
velopment of depression. The aim of this review was,
therefore, to collate extant data on the role of inflamma-
tion and O&NS as possible mediators of known environ-
mental risk factors in depression, and to discuss potential
implications of these findings, acknowledging the explora-
tory nature of these relationships. This paper will discuss
those salient environmental variables that are risk factors
for depression and examine immune dysregulation as a
potential mediator of the interaction. This relationship has
the potential to suggest both novel therapeutic and pre-
ventative approaches.
Stress and trauma
Of all the factors in this review, stressors and trauma
have attracted the greatest extant literature. Psychosocial
stressors, including acute psychological trauma or more
sub-chronic stressors, and early exposure to childhood
trauma robustly increase the risk of developing clinical
depression and mood symptoms, while impacting neuro-
immune circuits. There is now evidence that in experi-
mental animals, different types of psychosocial stressors
increase systemic and CNS levels of pro-inflammatory
cytokines, including IL-1 and IL-6. For example, im-
mobilization stress, mild inescapable foot shock, chronic
mild stress, tail restraint stress, and social isolation in ro-
dent models cause significant increases in IL-1 (mRNA)
levels in the plasma and brain [18-23]. Moreover, the
onset of depressive-like behaviors following external
stressors (for example, learned helplessness and chronic
mild stress) is associated with activated transcriptional fac-
tors (for example, nuclear factor κB), activation of other
inflammatory pathways (for example, cyclooxygenase 2
and prostaglandin production), and increased apoptosis
(for example, lowered levels of Bcl-2 and Bcl-2-associated
athanogene 1) [24].
In humans, there is evidence that different types of
psychosocial stressors may stimulate the pro-inflamma-
tory cytokine network, including increases in IL-6 and
TNFα [25-28]. Maes et al. [28,29] were the first to report
that stress-induced increases in IFNγ and stress-induced
Th1 dominance were significantly correlated with stress-
induced anxiety and distress. Thus, subjects with psy-
chological stress-induced distress and anxiety showed
significantly greater increases in IFNγ and lower IL-10
than those without distress and anxiety. Psychosocial
stress is also accompanied by lowered levels of endo-
genous, anti-inflammatory compounds, for example,
CC16 (uteroglobuline), which decreases the production
ofIFNγ
[30].Individuals
decreases in CC16 in the serum display higher stress-
induced anxiety and distress, and an increased produc-
tion of IFNγ during the stress condition [29,30]. Thus,
stress-induced increases in pro-inflammatory and Th1-
like cytokines may be mediated by lowered levels of en-
dogenous anti-inflammatory compounds, such as CC16.
Stress-induced production of pro-inflammatory cyto-
kines, for example, TNFα and IL-6, and Th1-like cyto-
kines, for example, IFNγ, are related to an increased
number of leukocytes and neutrophils, and expression of
immune cell activation markers, including CD2+CD26+
and CD2+HLADR, and different signs of an acute phase
response [29]. This indicates that psychosocial stress-
induced elevations in pro-inflammatory cytokines or-
chestrate stress-induced changes in peripheral blood
immune cells, inflammatory reactions and neurobeha-
vioral changes.
The findings that psychosocial stressors modulate the
production of pro-inflammatory versus anti-inflamma-
tory or negative immunoregulatory cytokines has impor-
tant implications for stress-related disorders, including
showing stress-induced
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depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Thus, psychosocial stressors, such as negative life events,
and chronic psychosocial stress often precede the onset
of clinical depression. Translational models show that
pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1β, IL-6 and
TNFα, are depressogenic and anxiogenic. These mecha-
nisms may explain why psychosocial stressors and acute
psychotrauma may trigger mood disorders in vulnerable
subjects, for example, those with immune gene polymor-
phisms, lowered levels of pepdidases, including dipepti-
dylpeptidase and prolylendopeptidase, and those with
increased inflammatory burden [31].
Evidence from animal models has long suggested that
early exposure to trauma in childhood may increase the
subsequent risk of poor functioning of the immune,
endocrine and nervous systems. More recently, studies
conducted with humans have corroborated these find-
ings. Data from the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health
and Development Study in New Zealand, a longitudinal
study following 1,000 participants from birth to 32 years,
have demonstrated that individuals experiencing stress
in childhood resulting from maltreatment, abuse, social
isolation and economic hardship are twice as likely to
suffer chronic inflammation [32]. The detrimental im-
pact of adversity on health in adulthood has also been
demonstrated in US populations. Kiecolt-Glaser [33]
found that childhood adversity can shorten the lifespan
by 7 to 15 years, arguing that stress associated with
abuse, death of a parent or parental relationship prob-
lems can lead to inflammation and premature cell aging,
when compared with individuals who have not experi-
enced such adversity. Miller et al. [34], in a further study
focusing on depression outcomes, compared C-Reactive
Protein (CRP) and IL-6 levels of women with and with-
out history of childhood adversity; the former group was
shown to have a greater likelihood of depression, re-
cording higher levels of inflammation using these bio-
markers. Studies exploring the influence of stress on
other inflammatory diseases, such as CVD [35] and me-
tabolic syndrome [36], have consistently shown similar
trends. Such findings highlight the fundamental idea that
stress occurring early in life can exert persistent effects
over long periods of time, not only increasing suscepti-
bility to somatic and psychiatric illness, but potentially
interfering with treatment response.
However, the association between childhood adversity
and vulnerability to inflammatory disease cannot fully be
explained by a prolonged period of stress initiated by
such an event. Rather, it is possible that learned, mal-
adaptive responses to stress occurring in early childhood
are also employed later in adult life in response to
stressors. Thus, stress in adulthood has become of in-
creasing interest as an instrumental risk factor for disease
onset. For example, there is evidence that personality and
the way in which an individual responds to psychosocial
stressors, such as examination stress or job strain, may
contribute to inflammatory processes [37]. Slavich et al.
[38] found that responses to social stress via neural activity
lead to marked increases in inflammatory activity. Simi-
larly, Emeny [39] found job strain to have a direct effect
on inflammation, and to influence other risk factors for in-
flammation. Job strain is known as a risk factor for other
inflammatory diseases, such as CVD, and more recently
has been shown to be strongly associated with depression
risk [40]. Indeed, it is clear that understanding modifiable
risk factors related to stress (and lifestyle) may be an im-
portant step in the prevention of inflammatory diseases
like depression.
Diet
There have been substantial changes to dietary habits
globally over recent decades, wherein dietary patterns
high in fiber, nutrient-dense foods and omega-3 poly-
unsaturated fatty acids have been replaced by diets
higher in saturated fats and refined sugars [41]. Whether
diet quality contributes to psychopathology, particularly
the common mental disorders (CMDs), depression and
anxiety, has been a focus of much recent research. Since
2009, there have been numerous studies reporting in-
verse associations between diet quality and CMDs,
both cross-sectionally [42-45] and prospectively [46-48].
These associations have also been shown in children
[49] and adolescents [50-52] and are notably concordant
across cultures. Individual nutrients are also related to
depression. As an example, lowered availability of selen-
ium in groundwater and lycopene contents in food are
both associated with clinical depression [53-55].
One of the primary mechanisms of action proposed to
explain these consistent relationships is that of inflam-
mation, where diet quality can impact upon immune
functioning and levels of systemic inflammation, which
subsequently predisposes to depression. Data from po-
pulation-based studies indicate an association between
habitual diet quality and systemic inflammation. For ex-
ample, in the Nurses’ Health Study, a healthy (‘prudent’)
dietary pattern, characterized by higher intakes of vege-
tables and fruit, whole grains, fish and legumes, was
associated with reduced plasma concentrations of in-
flammatory markers, including CRP and IL-6; con-
versely, an unhealthy (‘Western’) pattern, high in red
and processed meats, refined carbohydrate and other
processed foods, was associated with increased inflam-
matory markers [56]. Similarly, Fung et al. [57] found
that a Western dietary pattern was associated with higher
levels of CRP in men participating in the Health Pro-
fessionals Follow-up Study, while in the ATTICA study, a
Mediterranean diet pattern was associated with lower in-
flammatory markers [58].
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Various components of diet may also influence inflam-
mation. For example, the fiber contained in whole grain
foods appears to have immune modulating functions;
wholegrain foods are rich in beta-glucans and these are
known to promote immune functioning [59]. Fiber influ-
ences gut microbiota [60], and this has a knock-on effect
on immune functioning [61]. In support of this, the con-
sumption of whole grains is shown to be inversely asso-
ciated with death from non-cardiovascular, non-cancer
inflammatory diseases [62]. Whole grain foods are also
high in phytochemicals, which protect against the oxida-
tive stress that is a consequence of inflammation and a
feature of depressive illness [63]. High glycemic load
(GL) diets are a common feature of Western culture, be-
ing heavy in refined carbohydrates and added sugars. In
middle-aged, otherwise healthy, women, a high GL diet
was shown to be associated with higher levels of CRP
[64], while another larger study reported that a high gly-
cemic index diet was associated with a small but signifi-
cant increase in CRP in more than 18,000 middle- to
older-aged women [65]. Omega-3 fatty acids, which are
important components of many healthy foods, such as
seafood, nuts, legumes and leafy green vegetables, act to
reduce inflammation [66], while a diet disproportionately
high in omega-6 fatty acids, which are commonly used
in the production of processed foods, increases the pro-
duction of pro-inflammatory cytokines [67]. In the
Whitehall II cohort study, polyunsaturated fatty acid
levels were inversely associated with CRP, while higher
saturated fatty acid levels in serum phospholipids were
associated with higher CRP and fibrinogen [68]. Trans-
fatty acids similarly induce inflammation [69]. Finally,
magnesium intake, which is highly correlated with diet
quality [43], was shown to be inversely associated with
CRP levels in the large National Health and Nutrition
Survey (NHANES) in the US [70].
Intervention studies in humans support these observa-
tional data. Men randomized to a diet high in fruits and
vegetables (eight servings per day) for eight weeks dem-
onstrated a significant decrease in CRP compared with
those consuming only two servings per day [71]. Simi-
larly, Jenkins et al. [72] reported that a dietary inter-
vention using a whole-diet approach and emphasizing
the intake of soy, nuts and plant foods, resulted in
pronounced reductions in CRP levels in hyperlipide-
mic patients over one month, independently of chan-
ges in body weight. Esposito et al. [73] also reported
reductions in multiple inflammatory markers in pa-
tients with the metabolic syndrome randomized to a
Mediterranean-style diet, long recognized as a health-
ful dietary pattern, independent of observed decreases
in weight. Conversely, in an intervention study of
overweight adults, a sucrose-rich diet for
resulted in significant increases in the inflammatory
10 weeks
markers haptoglobin and transferrin, and small increases
in CRP [74].
Finally, studies in animal models explicate specific
mechanisms of action. Recent studies show that rodents
maintained on diets high in saturated fatty acids have el-
evated markers of brain inflammation [75]. This effect
appears to be trans-generational; rats born to dams fed
high saturated fat or high trans-fat diets were shown to
have increased levels of neuroinflammation in adult-
hood, even when fed a standard diet post-weaning [76].
Saturated and trans-fat intake may influence inflamma-
tion, at least in part, via the health of the gut. High fat
intake increases elements from gut microbiota, such as
the endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS), in the circula-
tory system, and LPS are potent promoters of immune
system activation [77]. However, some of these deleteri-
ous effects on immune functioning may be addressed
through the consumption of certain types of resistant
starches and prebiotics [78]. In particular, short-chain
fatty acids (SCFAs), which are produced by fermentation
of dietary fiber by intestinal microbiota, appear to have a
positive impact on immune functioning, suggesting that
increasing intake of fermentable dietary fiber may be im-
portant in reducing inflammation [79]. There is an in-
creasing focus on the importance of gut microbiota in
depression and this is addressed in further detail below.
Exercise
There is a substantive evidence base on the role of exer-
cise as an effective treatment strategy for depression
[80,81]. It is also evident that habitual or regular exercise
protects against the development of new depressive ill-
nesses [82-84], and that physical inactivity during child-
hood is associated with an increased risk of depression
in adulthood [85]. In a nested case-control study of older
individuals, habitual physical activity reduced the likeli-
hood of new depressive and anxiety disorders; for each
standard deviation increase in physical activity score,
there was a halving in the likelihood of developing de-
pressive or anxiety disorders [82]. The relationship in
this, and other studies [86-88], was found to be driven
by leisure-time physical activity. Resistance training is a
recognized treatment strategy for slowing loss of skeletal
muscle mass and function [89]. A prospective cohort
study in Tasmania reported that leisure-time physical ac-
tivity is positively associated with leg strength and
muscle quality in older women [90]. Sarcopenia is linked
to elevated high sensitivity (hs) CRP [91], especially in
the presence of obesity. Sarcopenia is further linked to
cognitive decline in the elderly, which appears to be me-
diated by inflammation [92].
Acute exercise generates reactive oxygen species (ROS)
[93] and inflammatory cytokines [94] that can transiently
damage muscle cells, causing muscle fatigue, pain and
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inflammation. Contracting skeletal muscle produces a
number of ‘myokines’, such as IL-6 [95], which impact
systemically on lipid and glucose metabolism [96]. The
pattern of inflammatory markers produced during acute
exercise, characterized by a rapid elevation in levels of
IL-6 that is quickly followed by induction of anti-
inflammatory substances, including IL-1ra, IL-10 and
soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor (sTNF-R) [97],
differs markedly from that in other inflammatory condi-
tions, such as sepsis. Recovery after the exercise-induced
IL-6 spike dampens the inflammatory response and oxi-
dative burst activity [98]. Chronic or regular exercise,
therefore, down-regulates systemic inflammation via
homeostatic adaptation [99]. Similarly, fitness and exer-
cise reduces leptin [100], elevated levels of which are
also implicated in the development of depression [101]
and is the most evidence-based management strategy for
insulin resistance [102]. These data converge to provide
evidence supporting a role for inflammation in exercise-
induced mood improvements.
More recently and conversely to the association bet-
ween inflammation and exercise, the relationship bet-
ween sedentary behavior and inflammation has become
of increasing interest. Sedentary behavior is now consid-
ered an important and novel risk factor for a number of
physical health conditions, independent of moderate to
vigorous physical activity levels. Specifically, sedentary
behavior has been shown to be associated with elevated
adiposity and cardiovascular risk. For example, in a
multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis Allison et al. (2012)
found sedentary behavior to be linked with “unfavorable”
levels of adiposity-associated inflammation [103]. Fur-
ther, in a national survey conducted in the US, Koster et
al. [104] found sedentary behavior to be a predictor of
mortality, after adjustment for relevant covariates. Com-
plicating interpretation is that factors that are predictive
of lower physical activity, such as lower self-efficacy,
medical co-morbidity, lower educational status and
social isolation, may be mediators or moderators of the
association [105]. While the underlying physiology associ-
ated with inactivity is also not fully understood, there is
evidence from animal studies that a sedentary lifestyle
may suppress skeletal muscle lipoprotein lipase [106]; re-
sponsible for controlling the process associated with meta-
bolic risk factors. Further research is required in order to
fully understand the links between inflammation and the
underlying physiology of sedentary behavior.
Obesity
Closely linked to diet are its consequences, including
obesity, which is a growing public health concern linked
to a host of chronic physical health conditions [107].
With the prevalence of obesity increasing to epidemic
proportions, efforts in understanding associated risk
factors and outcomes are continuing. The most recently
collected data have shown that in excess of 60% of the
Australian population exceed the recommended thres-
hold for healthy body habitus [108]; concordant with es-
timates from other countries [109]. With few exceptions,
both clinical- and community-based cross-sectional stu-
dies have consistently shown a relationship between
obesity and depression regardless of methodological
variability [110,111]. Prospective studies have suggested
that obesity may be a clinical condition that predisposes
to the development of depressive symptomatology as
well as clinical depression [112]. Depression has also
been shown to predispose to obesity in a bidirectional
manner [112]. A recent meta-analysis of prospective co-
hort studies found obesity to increase the risk of later
depression by 55%, while depression increased the risk
of developing obesity by 58% [113]. Further investiga-
tions into mechanistic pathways are much needed.
Obesity is an inflammatory state. Inflammatory cyto-
kines have been found in abundance in fat cells, are in-
volved in fat metabolism and have been observed to be
positively associated with all indices of obesity, in par-
ticular abdominal obesity [114]. Altered adipocyte func-
tion, fatty acid levels, leptin and hypothalamic pituitary
adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction and oxidative stress are
hypothesized to play a crucial but synergistic role in
obesity-associated inflammation [114]. A reduction in
adipose tissue mass, through calorie restriction in a
group of obese women, was shown to reduce the ability
of adipose tissue to produce TNFa, IL-6, IL-8 and leptin
[115]. Cross-sectional and prospective studies indicating
obesity, independent of age and other potential con-
founders, leads to altered levels of inflammatory cyto-
kines (or vice visa) provides a likely explanation into the
observed increases in concomitant disease, including de-
pression [116,117]. Moreover, we and others have previ-
ously shown inflammation, in particular, serum hsCRP
to predict de novo major depressive disorder (MDD) [6].
Smoking
Rates of cigarette smoking are significantly higher in pa-
tients experiencing depression when compared with
non-depressed controls. This finding has been replicated
in numerous population-based epidemiological studies
[118,119]. The causal relationship between smoking and
depression is, however, a complex one. The three poten-
tial causal connections underpinning the cross-sectional
relationship, that smoking leads to depression [120,121],
that depression increases smoking behaviors [122], and
that shared-vulnerability factors [123] increase the risk
of both, are all supported by empirical evidence. Al-
though it is probable that cigarette smoking exerts diverse
psychological and neurobiological effects, which may in-
crease one’s predisposition to developing depression, one
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major pathway could be through enhancing systemic in-
flammatory and cell-mediated immune responses, and en-
hancing exposure to O&NS.
Cigarette smoke contains many thousands of che-
micals [124], including free radicals, metals, tars and
other substances that induce inflammatory responses in
bodily tissues and increase levels of O&NS. The noxious
effects of cigarette smoking in inducing altered inflam-
matory responses contribute to a number of chronic
physical illnesses, including asthma, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease and atherosclerosis [125-127]. Smok-
ing has been associated with increased levels of acute
phase proteins, including CRP, and pro-inflammatory cy-
tokines, including IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF–α, which occur
secondary to direct effects in activation of microglia
and astrocytes [128]. These findings of increased pro-
inflammatory cytokines are similar to those found in de-
pressed patients [3]. Recent evidence also suggests that
enhanced inflammatory responses are additive between
cigarette smoking and depression, such that depressed
smokers exhibit higher levels of hsCRP, IL-6 and TNF –α
than non-depressed smokers [129].
The exogenous free radicals contained in cigarette
smoke lead to direct oxidative damage to cellular tissues,
including those in the CNS. Numerous studies have
demonstrated that animals exposed to cigarette smoke
exhibit increased markers of oxidative stress and de-
creased levels of antioxidants. Observed effects include
increased levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances
(TBARS), superoxide, carbonylated proteins [130] and
measures of lipid peroxidation [131-133], and reductions
in levels of antioxidant enzymes, such as catalase [134],
glutathione, superoxide dismutase [134], glutathione re-
ductase, glutathione peroxidase and Vitamins A, C and E
[135]. These findings appear most evident in models of
chronic cigarette exposure, suggesting the possibility that
early adaptive responses [136], which may increase anti-
oxidant levels in the short term [137], are overwhelmed by
chronic use. Once again, these findings are similar to
those found in patients in major depression, where there
appears to be a disturbance in the oxidant/antioxidant
balance [3].
Significant interaction occurs between markers of in-
flammation and O&NS, which further interact with nu-
merous other key elements of central nervous system
functioning, including neurotransmitter systems, neuro-
plastic neurotrophins, mitochondrial energy production
and epigenetic controls. Through these diverse effects,
in conjunction with its known ability to increase inflam-
matory and oxidative stress responses, cigarette smoking
may increase susceptibility for the development of de-
pression. The extent to which the susceptibility is in-
creased will likely differ between individuals based on
underlying depression risk, differing levels and timing of
exposure to cigarette smoke (for example, childhood ver-
sus adulthood) and presence and severity of cigarette-
related health and social consequences.
Gut permeability, the microbiome and the toll-like
receptor (TLR)-IV pathway
A new potential pathway that may mediate depression
pathogenesis is increased immune responses against LPS
of different commensal, gram negative bacteria. Clinical
depression has recently been shown to be accompanied
by increased plasma levels of immunoglobulin (Ig) A
and/or IgM directed against a number of gram negative
bacteria,includingHafnia
aeruginosa, Morganella morganii, Proteus mirabilis,
Pseudomonas putida, Citrobacter koseri and Klebsielle
pneumoniae [138-140]. All these gram negative bacteria
belong to the normal gut flora [141,142]. These results
suggest that there is an IgA- and IgM-mediated immune
response directed against LPS, which is part of the bac-
terial wall of gram negative bacteria. LPS are toxic sub-
stances, which may activate immune cells by binding to
the CD14-Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4) complex. This in
turn may activate intracellular signaling molecules, such
as nuclear factor (NF)-κβ, which in turn activates the
production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including
TNFα
andIL-1and cyclo-oxygenase-2
[143,144]. The same processes also induce O&NS path-
ways, for example, increased expression of inducible ni-
tric oxide (iNOS) and thus NO [143]. LPS further
activates nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
(NADPH) oxidase leading to an increased production of
ROS, for example, peroxides, and superoxide [145,146].
Moreover, LPS increases the production of lysozyme
(muramidase), which is produced by neutrophils, mono-
cytes and glandular cells and which may bind LPS and
therefore may decrease the activities of LPS [147].
The systemic IgM-mediated immune response in de-
pression directed against LPS suggests that bacterial
translocation may play a role in the inflammatory and
O&NS pathophysiology of clinical depression. Bacterial
translocation indicates the presence of “leaky gut” or an
increased permeability of the gut wall or loosening of
the tight junction barrier. Under normal conditions, im-
mune cells are geographically separated from gram nega-
tive bacteria in the gut. An increased permeability of the
gut wall may allow poorly invasive gram negative bac-
teria to translocate into the mesenteric lymph nodes
(MLNs) and sometimes into the systemic circulation
[148,149]. Consequently, in the systemic circulation,
IgM and IgA responses are mounted against the LPS of
the bacterial wall, while IgA responses may be mounted
even when the bacteria do not reach the blood stream,
but only translocate into the MLNs. Thus, the assay
of the IgA responses directed against LPS measures
alvei, Pseudomonas
(COX-2)
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bacterial translocation into the blood stream and the
MNLs. Once primed, immune cells may produce pro-
inflammatory cytokines and stimulate O&NS pathways
[140]. Elevated plasma levels of IgA and IgM levels di-
rected against the LPS of gram negative commensals in-
directly indicate increased bacterial translocation and
thus increased gut permeability. Therefore, bacterial
translocation may drive inflammatory and O&NS pro-
cesses in depression, even in the absence of a specific
inflammatory lesion [138]. On the other hand, inflam-
matory and O&NS pathways may cause loosening of the
tight junction barrier through NF-κB and pro-inflamma-
tory cytokine-related mechanisms [150-154].
In a recent study, the IgM and/or IgA responses di-
rected against LPS were found to be associated with
signs of inflammation, O&NS processes and even auto-
immune responses [140]. More specifically, increased
IgM and IgA responses to LPS in depression are signifi-
cantly and positively correlated to plasma lysozyme,
serum oxidized LDL antibodies and the IgM responses
directed against azelaic acid and malondialdehyde and
phosphatidylinsositol, and NO-adducts, such as NO-
tryptophan and NO-tyrosine [140]. These findings not
only highlight O&NS processes, but also oxidative da-
mage to lipids and nitrosative damage to proteins, and
autoimmune responses mounted against neoepitopes
formed by O&NS damage to lipids and proteins [140].
Thus, increased bacterial translocation may be a pri-
mary factor in the onset of clinical depression and may
be a secondary factor further aggravating inflammatory
and O&NS pathways, leading to a vicious cycle between
loosening of the tight junction barrier and activation of
inflammatory and O&NS pathways [138]. In addition,
the IgM responses directed against LPS were signifi-
cantly higher in patients with chronic depression than in
those without chronic depression [155]. This may sug-
gest that the inflammatory, O&NS and autoimmune
processes that are induced by bacterial translocation
could be involved in the development of chronic depres-
sion and the neuroprogression that is observed in this
condition [3,4,139]. Recently, translational data further
underscored the importance of increased gut permeabil-
ity in mediating stress-related behavioral responses, in-
cluding depression [156]. Thus, stress activates the TLR-
IV pathway and associated inflammatory and O&NS
pathways, including central neuroinflammation. These
effects are at least in part mediated by stress-induced
intestinalpermeabilityand
[156].
bacterial translocation
Atopic disorders
An elevated IgE response to common allergen exposure,
leading to the development of allergic symptoms, such
as asthma, eczema or allergic rhinitis/hay fever is
defined as atopy [157]. The prevalence of atopic disor-
ders has been steadily increasing over the past few de-
cades [158,159]. Interestingly, atopy and depression have
recently been linked. Although methodologies differ
among studies, it has been consistently reported that
atopic disorders are associated with an increased risk of
both clinical depression and depressive symptomatology
in clinical settings [160-163]. Population-based studies
provide further support, showing a positive association
between depression and atopic disorders [164-168]. As
with all of the associations explored in this paper, the
causal pathways and their mediators merit exploration.
Atopic disorders are the product of an inflammatory
response. The interaction of an antigen, with antigen-
specific IgE antibodies fixed on the mast cell surface,
activates the mast cell to produce the release of inflam-
matory mediators [169]. There are three categories of
mediators released; secretory granule-associated me-
diators (for example, histamine, proteoglycans, neutral
proteases), lipid-derived mediators (for example, cyclo-
xygenase and lipoxygenase metabolites of arachidonic
acid) and cytokines (for example, Th2 response IL4, IL5
and IL13 and TNFa) [170]. This response results in an
immediate hypersensitivity reaction, such as edema or
itch of the skin, cough or bronchospasm, sneezing or in-
creased mucous secretion. Many hypersensitivity reac-
tions result in a second reaction, termed the late phase
reaction (for example, persistent asthma) [169,170].
Dental cares and periodontal diseases
Dental cares and periodontal diseases, including gingi-
vitis and periodontitis, are diseases of the oral cavity
where connective gum tissue gradually becomes de-
tached from the alveolar bone and often leads to tooth
loss [171]. Periodontal disease is a considerable public
health concern; a recent prevalence estimate in US
adults was 47% [172]. Correlates of periodontal disease
include psychological factors, such as low self-esteem
[173], loneliness [174] and high levels of stress [175]. It
has been reported that psychiatric patients have poorer
oral health status [176]. Recent research suggests that
depression in particular may be associated with peri-
odontal disease. For example, a large, epidemiological
study of over 80,000 adults found that adults with de-
pression were less likely to use oral health services, and
adults with anxiety or depression were more likely to
have tooth loss, even after controlling for various demo-
graphic and health factors, including use of oral health
services [177]. However, another study comprising an
older population found no association between depres-
sion and any measure of oral health, including periodontal
disease [178]. Much of the limited research on psycho-
logical factors and periodontal disease examines samples
from specialist or patient populations. Therefore, research
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which focuses on correlates of oral health and depression
from community samples that are more representative of
the general population, and that examines pathways and
mediators of this association, are required.
Periodontal disease is an inflammatory disease. The
accumulation of bacterial plaque on the teeth causes le-
sions in the periodontal tissue, leading to an acute, local
inflammatory response [179]. Local inflammation in gin-
givitis is concentrated in soft oral tissues, such as the
gum and connective tissue, while inflammation in sup-
porting structures, including the alveolar bone, is also
present in periodontitis [180]. Critically, periodontal di-
sease is also associated with high levels of systemic in-
flammation, such as elevated serum levels of CRP [181].
Furthermore, it is a significant predictor of other inflam-
matory illnesses, such as CVD [182], and health out-
comes, such as mortality in diabetes [183] and coronary
artery disease [184]. The inflammatory response re-
sulting from periodontal disease appears to be mediated
by macrophages, which produce various cytokines [185],
although periodontal tissues may also directly produce
cytokines, such as IL-6 and IL-8 [186]. As such, peri-
odontal disease may be a marker of a failure of the im-
mune system to resolve inflammation [187,188], a state
that may also result in vulnerability to depression [189].
Furthermore, there may also be direct causal links be-
tween depression and periodontal disease, such as when
periodontal disease increases risk for depression through
the psychosocial effects of poor oral hygiene (for ex-
ample, shame, isolation, loneliness) or more directly
through the systemic inflammatory effects of periodontal
disease that may potentiate inflammatory and O&NS
processes and thus depressive symptoms. Currently,
there remains a dearth of evidence that examines whe-
ther translocation of periodontal bacteria plays a role in
some patients with clinical depression, despite some evi-
dence that periodontal infections may play a role in neu-
rodegenerative disorders [190].
Sleep
Sleep is one of the most widely observed phenomena in
multi-cellular organisms [191] and is recognized to play
a vital regulatory role in a number of physiological and
psychological systems. Abnormal sleep patterns are asso-
ciated with a number of adverse health outcomes, such
as an increased risk for mortality [192], morbidity and
poorer quality of life [193]. Sleep disturbance is a com-
mon elementin psychiatric
complimentary marker of psychopathology in mood dis-
orders [194]. It is estimated that up to 80 to 90% of indi-
viduals who suffer from a MDD also experience sleep
disturbances [194-196]. Typically, depressive patients ex-
hibit higher rates of sleep disturbances than those in the
general population [197] and, conversely, those who
disorders,anda
report abnormal sleep patterns report higher levels of
depression than normal sleepers [198]. Several prospect-
ive and epidemiological studies have suggested that sleep
disturbances may also predispose individuals to subse-
quent development of mood disturbances. Indeed, a
meta-analysis comprising
demiologicalstudies conducted
Volderholzer [199] concluded that insomnia symptoms
unambiguously represented a risk factor for the later de-
velopment of depression. Similar research has suggested
that insomnia symptoms often increase the risk of re-
lapse in individuals previously diagnosed with MDD
[200], and that periods of sleeplessness often precede
manic episodes in bipolar patients [201].
Both chronic and acute sleep deprivation are associ-
ated with alteration in cellular and natural immune
functioning [202]; however, the direct mechanism by
which sleep affects inflammation is unclear. It is thought
that alterations in sleep as a result of lifestyle or medical
factors act as a moderator for inflammatory biomarkers
[203] via a bidirectional relationship that exists to modu-
late host-defense and sleep mechanisms [192]. Experi-
mental research has demonstrated that acute sleep
deprivation results in impairments in immune function-
ing [202], characterized by increased levels of the pro-
inflammatory cytokines, CRP, TFN-α [204] and IL-6
[205]. These alterations contribute to stroke and heart
attack due to long-term impaired vascular endothelial
function [206] and possible renal impairment [207]. Even
modest sleep restriction (from eight to six hours per
night) has been shown to result in elevation in levels of
IL-6 and TFN-α [208]; however, this has not been repli-
cated in epidemiological studies [209]. Increases in these
biomarkers have also been observed naturally in individ-
uals suffering primary insomnia [208,210]. Activation of
these pro-inflammatory pathways may result from in-
creased nocturnal sympathetic arousal [193] and an as-
sociated decline in natural immune functioning [202],
therefore, facilitating potentially poorer cardiovascular
outcomes and higher mortality risks previously seen in
these individuals [192,211].
Growing research has suggested that curtailment of
sleep is associated with similar neuroendocrine and
neurobiological abnormalities observed in mood distur-
bances [212]. Increases in pro-inflammatory cytokines
TFN-α and IL-6 following sleep deprivation are also
thought to be related to a reduction in adult neurogen-
esis (AN), comparable to those disturbances found in
depressive patients [213]. Cytokines are significant mo-
dulators of mood (Krishnan and Nestler, [214]). The re-
lease of low doses of IL-6 and TFN-α via administration
of IL-1 in rats generates ‘sickness behavior’ (social with-
drawal, decreased exploratory behavior) [2,215], while
deletion of the gene encoding IL-6 or TFNα promotes
relevant longitudinal
by Riemann
epi-
and
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antidepressant-like behavior phenotypes (resistance to
helplessness, enhanced hedonic behavior) [216]. Increa-
sed activation of the immune system is often observed
in depressed patients; and those suffering immune dis-
eases often report higher rates of depression [215]. It
has, therefore, been proposed that inhibition of neuro-
genesis through the process of chronic sleep disruption
may also contribute to the etiology of depression [217].
As both improved nocturnal sleep and successful phar-
macological treatment of depression are associated with
decreased levels of IL-6 [208,218], and similar inflamma-
tory mechanisms appear to contribute to the pathogen-
esis of depression and expression of illness in chronic
sleep disordered patients, adaptive sleep habits may,
therefore, act as a protective factor against cardiovascu-
lar risk and poorer mental health outcomes.
Vitamin D
Low levels of Vitamin D, particularly 25-hydroxyvitamin
D are widespread among Western populations [219],
making it the most prevalent deficiency state. Low Vita-
min D is linked to a diversity of adverse health out-
comes, such as osteoporosis and cancer [220]. Notably,
the physiology of vitamin D overlaps with the patho-
physiology of depression. Vitamin D receptors are
expressed in key brain areas; and vitamin D has a role in
circadian rhythms and sleep, affects glucocorticoids and
influences neuronal growth, cell proliferation in the
developing brain and embryogenesis [221]. There is a
growing epidemiological evidence-base linking depres-
sive symptoms to low levels of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin
D. These studies include both cross-sectional studies, as
well as prospective data suggesting that low levels are
associated with increased risk for the development of de-
pression. There are positive trials of the potential anti-
depressant effects of vitamin D [222], although there are
equally negative trials [223].
Vitamin D has well documented modulatory effects on
immunity. It modulates immune responses to infections,
such as tuberculosis [224]. In rats given a high fat diet,
1α, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (calcitriol) treatment re-
duced concentrations of various inflammatory markers,
including TNF-α, CRP and IL-6, and protected the liver
from inflammatory damage [225]. In human studies,
supplementation robustly reduces inflammatory markers
in people with cystic fibrosis, including TNF-α and IL-6,
but not other cytokines. Curiously, those two cytokines
are the most robustly associated with depression in
meta-analyses [226]. In multiple sclerosis, vitamin D re-
duces markers of inflammation and attenuates disease
progression [227]. A one-year clinical trial of supple-
mentation with Vitamin D in obese individuals reduced
TNF-α levels, but increased hsCRP. The implications of
these changes are unclear [225]. Inflammation and
oxidative stress are tightly interlinked, and in human
studies, vitamin D supplementation additionally reduced
oxidative stress markers [228]. Vitamin D is a proxy of
sunlight exposure, and it is useful to note that sunlight
may suppress immunity via pathways other than via vita-
min D. In fact, vitamin D derived from safe sunlight ex-
posure may reduce systemic inflammation. There are
additional skin photoreceptors that absorb ultraviolet
light, and play a role in immunoregulation, that include
DNA and lipids in skin cells and trans-urocanic acid
found in the stratum corneum [229].
Inflammation and immune activation across major
psychiatric disorders
There is also evidence that many other major psychiatric
disorders are accompanied by activation of inflammatory
and cell-mediated immune pathways, for example, mania,
schizophrenia, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The
first papers showing inflammation (increased levels of
pronflammtory cytokines, such as IL-6 and acute phase
proteins; [230,231] and immune activation (increased
levels of sIL-2Rs levels [230,232] in acute and euthymic
manic patients were published in the 1990s. A recent
meta-analysis confirmed that mania and bipolar disorder
are accompanied by activation of inflammatory, cell-
mediated and negative immunoregulatory cytokines [233].
Based on the first results obtained in schizophrenia, Smith
and Maes in 1995 launched the monocyte-T lymphocyte
theory of schizophrenia, which considered that activation
of immuno-inflammatory processes may explain the
neurodevelopmental pathology related to gestational in-
fections. Results of recent meta-analyses showed that
schizophrenia is accompanied by activation of inflamma-
tory and cell mediated pathways [234]. PTSD patients also
show higher levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, inclu-
ding IL-1 [235], IL-6 [236,237] and TNFα [238].
It is evident that the sources of inflammation and im-
mune activation, which play a role in depression, may
contribute to the inflammatory burden in patients with
mania. Schizophrenia is also associated with some but
not all sources of inflammation and immune activation
that play a role in depression. For example, a recent re-
view showed that stress and trauma (first and second
hits), nutritional factors and vitamin D may play a role
in schizophrenia [239]. The strong associations among
schizophrenia and smoking [240], obesity [241], some
atopic disorders [242], sleep disorders [243] and poor
periodontal and oral health [244,245] may further con-
tribute to the inflammatory burden in schizophrenia pa-
tients. Other factors, however, may be more specific to
mood disorders than to schizophrenia. For example, there
is no significant association between schizophrenia and
increased bacterial translocation [Maes et al., personal
data]. There is strong comorbidity between depression
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and PTSD and patients with this comorbidity show
increased inflammatory responses as compared with
those with PTSD or depression alone [236,237]. The
severity of stress and trauma [236], and the association be-
tween PTSD and smoking [246], obesity/metabolic syn-
drome [247], oral health status [248] and sleep disorders
[249] may further aggravate the activation of immuno-in-
flammatory pathways in PTSD or comorbid PTSD and
depression.
Summary
In interpreting these data, a number of factors need to be
borne in mind. First, depression is a very pleomorphic and
heterogeneous phenotype, and there are likely to be sub-
stantial differences in results depending whether studies
examine clinical or non-clinical samples, use cut scores
on rating scales or formal structured interviews and so on.
Similarly, many studies do not control for potential con-
founders, and most of the literature is cross-sectional.
Last, the areas of interest diverge greatly in terms of the
quantity and quality of the extant literature, with a clear
picture emerging on some areas, such as trauma and
stress, and others remaining areas for future investigation.
The identification of a number of potential factors that
are known sources of inflammation, and their corre-
lation to quality evidence linking those factors to in-
creased risk of depression, provides mechanistic support
for inflammation as one of the mediating pathways to
both risk and neuroprogression in depression. The piv-
otal element is that most of these are plastic, and amen-
able to intervention, both therapeutic and preventative.
While inflammation has suggested a number of very
promising anti-inflammatory therapies, including statins,
aspirin, pioglitazone and celecoxib, the latter preventa-
tive need is perhaps the more pressing [14,250,251].
Psychiatry largely lacks an integrated model for concep-
tualizing modifiable risk factors for depression. It has,
therefore, lacked conceptually and pragmatically coher-
ent primary prevention strategies, prioritizing the treat-
ment of established disorders. Yet the rationale, targets
and imperative to focus on prevention of depression at a
population level is clear.
Abbreviations
CIRS: Compensatory anti-inflammatory reflex system; CMDs: Common mental
disorders; CNS: Central nervous system; COX-2: Cyclo-oxygenase-2; CRP:
C-reactive protein; CVD: Cardiovascular disease; HPA axis: Hypothalamic
pituitary adrenal axis; hs: High sensitivity; IFN: Interferon; Ig: Immunoglobulin;
IL: Interleukin; iNOS: Inducible nitric oxide; LPS: Lipopolysaccharide;
MDD: Major depressive disorder; MLNs: Mesenteric lymph nodes;
NADPH: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; NHANES: National
Health and Nutrition Survey; NF: Nuclear factor; O&NS: Oxidative and
nitrosative stress; PTSD: Post-traumatic stress disorder; ROS: Reactive oxygen
species; SCFAs: Short-chain fatty acids; SSRIs: Selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors; sTNF-R: Soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor; TNF: Tumor
necrosis factor; TBARS: Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances; TLR:
Toll-like receptor.
Competing interests
MB has received Grant/Research Support from the NIH, Cooperative Research
Centre, Simons Autism Foundation, Cancer Council of Victoria, Stanley
Medical Research Foundation, MBF, NHMRC, Beyond Blue, Rotary Health,
Geelong Medical Research Foundation, Bristol Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly,
Glaxo SmithKline, Organon, Novartis, Mayne Pharma and Servier; has been a
speaker for Astra Zeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly, Glaxo SmithKline,
Janssen Cilag, Lundbeck, Merck, Pfizer, Sanofi Synthelabo, Servier, Solvay and
Wyeth; and served as a consultant to Astra Zeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb,
Eli Lilly, Glaxo SmithKline, Janssen Cilag, Lundbeck Merck and Servier.
FJ has received Grant/Research support from the Brain and Behaviour
Research Institute, the National Health and Medical Research Council
(NHMRC), Australian Rotary Health, the Geelong Medical Research
Foundation, the Ian Potter Foundation, Eli Lilly and The University of
Melbourne, and has been a paid speaker for Sanofi-Synthelabo, Janssen
Cilag, Servier, Pfizer, Health Ed, Network Nutrition and Eli Lilly. She is currently
supported by an NHMRC Training Fellowship (#628912).
LW, JP, SM, AH and MM have no conflicts of interest, including specific
financial interests and relationships and affiliations relevant to the subject
matter or materials discussed in the manuscript.
Authors’ contributions
MB took part in the conception and design of the study, critically revised the
manuscript and took primary responsibility for writing the manuscript. LW,
FJ, AO, JP, SM, NA, AS, AH, MLB and MM took part in writing the manuscript
and critically revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.
Author details
1IMPACT Strategic Research Centre, School of Medicine, Deakin University,
Geelong, VIC, Australia.2Department of Psychiatry, University of Melbourne,
Parkville, VIC, Australia.3Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health,
Parkville, VIC, Australia.4Orygen Youth Health Research Centre, Parkville, VIC,
Australia.5School of Public health and Preventive Medicine, Monash
University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.6NorthWest Academic Centre,
Department of Medicine, The University of Melbourne, St Albans, VIC,
Australia.7Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, University of
Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.8Department of Psychiatry, Chulalongkorn
University, Rama Road, Bangkok, Thailand.
Received: 8 February 2013 Accepted: 31 May 2013
Published: 12 September 2013
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