Level of selected nutrients in meat, liver, tallow and bone marrow from semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer t. tarandus L.).

Abstract

To acquire new knowledge on the nutritional composition of semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer t. tarandus L.) and their nutritional value for humans. The results could be useful in updating the Norwegian Food Composition Database, whose current data on reindeer is limited.
Cross-sectional study on population of semi-domesticated reindeer from 2 northern Norwegian counties (Finnmark and Nordland).
Semi-domesticated reindeer carcasses (n=31) were randomly selected, from which meat, liver, tallow and bone marrow samples were collected. Selected vitamins, minerals, fatty acids and total lipids were studied.
As expected, reindeer meat was found to be lean (2% total lipid), thus it is a good source of low-fat meat. The meat was also found to be a good source of vitamin B12, docosapentaenoic acid (C22:5 n-3) and α-linolenic acid (C18:3 n-3). Statistically significant differences (p<0.05) in most of the nutrient levels between meat and the rest of the studied reindeer tissues were observed. In most cases, the liver, tallow and bone marrow had higher nutritional values when compared to meat. Liver had the highest concentrations of vitamin A, all vitamin B types, vitamin C, iron, selenium and the total amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3). Additionally, liver was the only edible tissue that contained vita-mins B9 and C. The vast majority of the vitamin concentrations in liver, tallow and bone marrow were significantly correlated with the concentrations in meat (p<0.05).
The studied tissues from reindeer demonstrated that reindeer is a valuable food source that could meet or contribute to the consumers' nutritional recommended daily allowance (RDA).

Full text

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Level of selected nutrients in meat,
liver, tallow and bone marrow from
semi-domesticated reindeer
(Rangifer t. tarandus L.)
Ammar Ali Hassan1*, Torkjel M. Sandanger1,2and
Magritt Brustad1
1Centre for Sami Health Research, Department of Community Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences,
University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway;2Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU), Fram Centre, Tromsø,
Norway
Objectives: To acquire new knowledge on the nutritional composition of semi-domesticated reindeer
(Rangifer t. tarandus L.) and their nutritional value for humans. The results could be useful in updating
the Norwegian Food Composition Database, whose current data on reindeer is limited.
Study design: Cross-sectional study on population of semi-domesticated reindeer from 2 northern Norwegian
counties (Finnmark and Nordland).
Methods: Semi-domesticated reindeer carcasses (n?31) were randomly selected, from which meat, liver,
tallow and bone marrow samples were collected. Selected vitamins, minerals, fatty acids and total lipids were
studied.
Results: As expected, reindeer meat was found to be lean (2% total lipid), thus it is a good source of low-fat
meat. The meat was also found to be a good source of vitamin B12, docosapentaenoic acid (C22:5 n-3) and
a-linolenic acid (C18:3 n-3). Statistically significant differences (pB0.05) in most of the nutrient levels
between meat and the rest of the studied reindeer tissues were observed. In most cases, the liver, tallow and
bone marrow had higher nutritional values when compared to meat. Liver had the highest concentrations of
vitamin A, all vitamin B types, vitamin C, iron, selenium and the total amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids
(n-3). Additionally, liver was the only edible tissue that contained vita-mins B9 and C. The vast majority of
the vitamin concentrations in liver, tallow and bone marrow were significantly correlated with the
concentrations in meat (pB0.05).
Conclusions: The studied tissues from reindeer demonstrated that reindeer is avaluable food source that could
meet or contribute to the consumers’ nutritional recommended daily allowance (RDA).
Keywords: Nutrients; edible tissues; reindeer; Sami; Norway.
Received: 4 January 2011; Revised: 6 May 2011; Accepted: 23 May 2011; Published: 19 March 20121
D
lished data such as local reports. Consequently, the
Norwegian Food Composition Database lacks informa-
tion on some levels for the nutri-tional elements of
reindeer meat and meat products (1,2). Semi-domesti-
cated reindeer (Rangifer t. tarandus L.) liver, tallow and
bone marrow are important nutritional food substances
in the traditional Sami diet.
ata on the meat composition of reindeer and
caribou are very limited in comparison to other
meat types and are mostly restricted to unpub-
The Sami are an Indigenous people and an ethnic
minority in northern Fenno-Scandinavia and the Kola
Peninsula in Russia. The greatest proportion of the total
Sami population lives in Norway. Semi-domesticated
reindeer are a fundamental component in sustaining the
Sami culture, as well as an important food substance. The
total number of reindeer in Norway is reported to be
approximately 243,200, with the highest concentration in
Finnmark County, the northernmost county in Norway,
which has over 50% of the total amount (3). However, the
1Published ‘ahead-of-print’ 08 November 2011 (at www.ijch.fi) in accordance with previous publisher’s routines.
?
ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE
Int J Circumpolar Health 2012. # 2012 Ammar Ali Hassan et al. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/), permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Citation: Int J Circumpolar Health 2012, 71: 17997 - DOI: 10.3402/ijch.v71i0.17997
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numbers of reindeer and caribou herds are declining
across the circumpolar region due to global climate
change and modernization (4). The flock structure varies
by district, and appears to be dominated by female
reindeer at 69?78%, followed by calves at 17?21% and
males at 4?11% (3).
Unlike cattle, the semi-domesticated reindeer in
Norway primarily graze on a natural pasture throughout
the year, of which a large number of species of vascular
plants and lichens are the main component (5). However,
some supplement feed such as dried hay and pellet
concentrates may also sometimes be provided by owners
during harsh winters when the natural pasture is inac-
cessible. Generally speaking, summer grazing is necessary
for reindeer, as the green pasture is rich in proteins,
minerals and cellulose and provides a reserve that can be
used in winters during which carbohydrate-rich lichens
arethe main typeoffeed. Thisalso allows reindeer tobe in
better physical condition in autumn than in spring when
most of their reserves are depleted. Seasonal variations
and animal feed types were reported to influence the
varying nutritional composition of the reindeer meat and
other edible tissues (6,7). The movement of reindeer herds
through mountains, forests and plains differentiates their
grazing habits from other Norwegian ruminants that are
fedwhile indoors in thewinter and outdoors on farmyards
in the spring and autumn. Norwegian sheep are an
exception since their free grazing in summer very much
resembles that of the reindeer.
Semi-domesticated reindeer slaughterhouses are small
in size and limited in capacity with line speeds varying
between 20 and 60 carcasses per hour, depending on the
structure of the slaugh-terhouse in comparison to other
red meat slaugh-terhouses in Norway. In addition to the
stationary slaughterhouses, there are a few mobile ones
that contribute to the slaughter of a limited number
of reindeer. The majority (69%) of slaughtered reindeer
are calves, which are approximately 6?10 months old (3).
The reindeer slaughtering season starts in early Septem-
ber and ends in late January of the following year.
Traditional foods for Indigenous people were reported
to be the main sources of protein, fat, most minerals,
vitamin D and long-chain n-3 fatty acids (8). In general,
the nutritional values of meat vary in relation to many
factors such as feed types, anatomy, species and animal
physiology. The level of minerals, trace elements and
vitamin B were reported to be much higher in reindeer
meat than in cattle and pig meat (7). Studies on minerals
in reindeer and other rumi-nants revealed a higher
selenium concentration in the internal organs of reindeer
9?11, and the total lipid content in reindeer meat was
reported to be low in comparison to other meat types
(7,12,13).
The main purpose of this study was to obtain new
knowledge on the nutrient value of semi-domesticated
reindeer through the measurement of levels of selected
vitamins, minerals, fatty acids and total lipids in the
meat, liver, tallow and bone marrow. Our intent was to
compare the nutrient value of reindeer meat, liver, tallow
and bone marrow with the same from other species.
Additionally, we wanted to also compare our results on
reindeer meat, liver, tallow and bone marrow to con-
sumers’nutritional recommended
(RDA). Hopefully, our results will be useful in updating
the Norwegian Food Compo-sition Database, whose
current data on reindeer is limited.
dailyallowance
Materials and methods
Sample collection
Muscle, liver, tallow and bone marrow samples were
randomly collected from semi-domesticated reindeer
carcasses (n?31 animals) from 7 districts in Finnmark
(n?6) and Nordland (n?1) Counties in northern
Norway. The selec-tion of the 2 counties was based on
the fact that Finnmark has the largest number of semi-
domes-ticated reindeer, while Nordland was chosen to
provide a sample of the possible geographical variation in
the concentration of nutrients. The average age of the
reindeer from which the samples were collected from
September 2004 to January 2005 was 1.5 years old,
according to internal procedures (not published). How-
ever, a limited number of calves (approximately 6?10
months old, n?6) and adult animals (over 2 years old,
n?3) had to be chosen because of a scarcity of
slaughtered animals with the age of 1.5 years. Meat
samples were collected from the muscles in the dorsal
neck region. Liver samples were collected from the main
loop, tallow was collected from the fat tissue surrounding
kidneys, and bone marrow was collected from the hind
and front legs. All of the samples were collected in pre-
marked plastic bags immediately after the slaughter/
dressing/carcass weighing process and then divided into
different sample glasses/ plastic boxes. Each glass/plastic
box was then labelled with the sample type, carcass
number, district name/number and date of sample collec-
tion. Samples were put on ice (approximately 48C)
immediately after collection and distribu-tion into dedi-
cated containers and kept frozen at ?208C (within
12 hours from the sample collec-tion) until analysis.
Samples for vitamin analysis were stored in a ?708C
freezer until they were shipped frozen to the laboratory
for analysis. Glasses with samples for vitamin analysis
were covered with aluminium foil to prevent them from
being exposed to light. Hygienic measures were taken
during the sample collection to avoid the possible
microbiological contamination of samples.
Due to the high cost of vitamin analysis, pooled
samples of meat, liver, tallow and bone marrow from
Ammar Ali Hassan et al.
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Citation: Int J Circumpolar Health 2012, 71: 17997 - DOI: 10.3402/ijch.v71i0.17997

Page 3

the same district (a maximum of 5 animals of mixed age
in a pooled sample) were prepared.
Laboratory analyses
The analyses of vitamins were conducted by GBA-Food
(Hamburg, Germany) according to methods approved by
the German Food Act LMBG § 35, LFGB § 64 and the
standard methods of the Association of Official Analy-
tical Chemists (14,15). The laboratory is accredited with
the methods used in the analyses according to Staatliche
Akktreditierungsstelle Hanover, AKS-P-20213-EU.
For mineral analyses, the meat and internal organs of
reindeer were separately digested using a microwave oven
technique. In short, concentrated supra-pure HNO3
(5 ml) and H2O2 (3 ml) were added to the sample
(0.6?0.7 g) before undergoing the microwave oven treat-
ment. Hence, the following temperature regimes were
used in the microwave: 20?508C (5 min.), 50?1008C
(10 min.), 100?1808C (5 min.) and 1808C (15 min.). After
cooling down the heated decomposed sample, the solu-
tion was diluted to 50 ml. The sample solution was
analysed using an inductively coupled plasma high-
resolution mass spectrometer (ICP-HRMS), Thermo
Scientific Finnigan Element-2, Germany. All standards
and calibration solutions contained 1 ppb Rhenium (Re)
as an internal standard and 1% nitric acid (HNO3). The
calibration curve was verified by use of a standard quality
control (QC) sample, National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST), USA. The resolutions used for
minerals were low (at 10) for (Zn), middle (at 20) for
(Ca, Fe), and high (at 30) for (Se). The lens adjustment
was optimized daily to ensure maximum intensity and
top separation.
Precautionary measures, such as the use of closed
cabinet, non-metal sampling devices, tools and contain-
ers, were taken when preparing the decomposed samples
to avoid contamination by dust or from mineral alloys in
laboratory tools.
The analyses of fatty acids and total lipids were
undertaken by Unilab Analyse A/S in the Fram Centre,
Tromsø, Norway, according to a method for the isolation
and purification of total lipids from animal tissues by
Folch et al. (16). The laboratory is accredited for the
methods used in the analyses according to the European
standard NS-EN ISO/IEC 17025. Fatty acids are de-
scribed by a shorthand nomenclature of chain length
(number of carbon atoms): the number of double bonds
and n-x which indicate the position of the last double
bond related to the terminal methyl end. Additionally,
common fatty acids names are used in polyunsaturated
fatty acids.
Statistical analyses
Results were presented as mean values9standard devia-
tion (SD). The data set was entered in Excel†2003 for
Windows. Analytical results for vita-mins, minerals and
fatty acids below the limits of detection (LOD) were
replaced by zero, with the data then transferred to Stata/
SE 11.0 for Windows (Stata Corp. College Station, TX)
for further statistical analyses. Summary statistics was
used to determine the mean, SD, minimum and max-
imum values. A dependent-sample t-test was used to test
differences in the concen-trations of nutrient concentra-
tions between meat and the other studied tissues.
The differ-ences in fatty acid concentrations were only
tested between meat and liver due to a small number of
observations (n?3) for tallow and bone marrow.
A Pearson’s correlation test was used to test for possible
statistically significant correlations of nutrient concentra-
tions between meat and the other studied tissues.
The level of statistical significance was set at pB0.05
for all performed analyses.
Ethics
The study did not include any living animals, did not have
any adverse environmental health effects, with samples
collected from reindeers that had been slaughtered for
human consump-tion. Animals were fixed prior to
slaughter, made unconscious using a bolt pistol and put
down under the inspection of an official veterinarian
according to Norwegian regulations on animal welfare in
slaughterhouses (17).
RESULTS
Vitamins
Mean vitamin concentrations (per 100 g edible raw
tissue) in meat, liver, tallow and bone marrow are shown
in Table I.
Vitamins D2 and D3 were neither detected in meat nor
in any of the studied tissues. Vitamins B9 and C were only
detected in the liver, but as expected the liver had the
highest concentration of vitamin B9 in relation to the
meat, tallow and bone marrow. Vitamin A was the only
vitamin found to reveal a large variation in concentra-
tions among the 4 studied edible raw tissues (Table I),
although the variation was harmonic in the districts from
where the samples were collected (data not shown). The
meat, liver and tallow samples had the same mean
concentration of 0.48 mg/100g for vitamin E, while bone
marrow had a 4 times higher (pB0.01) concentration for
this vitamin.
The majority of vitamin concentrations in liver, tallow
and bone marrow were signifi-cantly correlated with
concentrations in meat as shown: Vitamin A: meat-liver
(r??0.95,pB0.01) and
pB0.01). Vitamin B1: meat-liver (r?0.99, pB0.01),
meat-tallow (r?0.55, pB0.05) and meat-bone marrow
(r?1.0, pB0.01). Vitamin B2: meat-bone marrow
(r?1.0, pB0.01). Vitamin B3: meat-tallow (r?0.99,
pB0.01). Vitamin B5: meat-tallow (r?0.90, pB0.01)
meat-tallow(r??0.90,
Level of selected nutrients in reindeer
Citation: Int J Circumpolar Health 2012, 71: 17997 - DOI: 10.3402/ijch.v71i0.17997
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and meat-bone marrow (r?1.0, pB0.01). Vitamin B6:
meat-liver(r??0.57,pB0.01)
(r??0.60,pB0.05). Vitamin
(r??0.52, pB0.05) and meat-bone marrow (r?1.0,
pB0.01). Vitamin B12: meat-liver (r?0.84, pB0.01),
meat-tallow (r?0.93, pB0.01) and meat-bone marrow.
and meat tallow
B7: meat-liver
Minerals
Table II shows the mean mineral concentrations of mg/
100 g for Se and mg/100 g of edible raw tissue for Ca, Fe
and Zn.
The highest Ca concentration of 339.709277.30 mg/
100 g was found in bone marrow (pB0.01). The Ca
concentrations in meat and tallow were comparable
(5.4091.0 and 5.1092.10 mg/100 g, respectively). Liver
appeared to be the best source of Fe in terms of mean
concentration at 41.10921.70 mg/100 g (pB0.01). There
were no differences in the Fe concentrations of meat,
tallow and bone marrow (p?0.25), with the following
concentrations: 3.3090.70, 4.1091.50 and 3.191.30 mg/
100 g. Liver also had the highest Se content of
48.70948.90 mg/100 g (pB0.01). The Se concentrations
in meat, liver, tallow and bone marrow (Table II) were
characterized by varia-tions among districts and from
animals within the same district (results not shown), with
one animal demonstrating a remarkably high Se concen-
tration (data not shown). These variations have resulted
in standard deviations similar or higher than the mean
concentration. The Zn in liver was the only mineral that
was significantly correlated with meat (r?0.77, pB0.01).
Fatty acids and total lipids
Fatty acids and total lipids concentrations were given in
g/100 g edible tissue. The concentra-tions of saturated
fatty acids (SFA), monounsat-urated fatty acids (MUFA)
and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are shown in
Table I. Mean vitamin concentrations in meat, liver, tallow and bone marrow of reindeer per 100 g of edible raw tissue
Meat (n?20)
Mean9SD
Liver (n?20)
Mean9SD
Tallow (n?15)
Mean9SD
Bone marrow (n?10)
Mean9SD
RDAc
Vitamin FemaleMale
Vitamin A (RAE)19.93922.55
0.0990.07
0.2690.07
4.2890.51
1.1491.23
0.1990.04
1.2391.03
n.d.a(B2 mg)
3.3491.83
n.d.a(B0.1 mg)
n.d.a(B0.5 mg)
n.d.a(B0.5 mg)
0.4890.30
20915.595310.22**
0.3390.30**
2.6390.15**
14.994.77**
5.8591.25**
0.5390.08**
19.4597.88**
302.789184.52
161.73948.48**
11.88912.93
n.d.a(B0.5 mg)
n.d.a(B0.5 mg)
0.4890.20
117922.98**
0.0390.02**
0.1590.04**
1.6791.22 **
0.4190.36**
0.0290.03**
4.393.48**
n.d.a(B2 mg)
2.2391.64**
n.d.a(B0.1 mg)
n.d.a(B0.1 mg)
n.d.a(B0.5 mg)
0.4690.07
45.25947.70
0.0290.02**
0.5190.46*
n.d.a(B0.2 mg)
0.1890.03**
n.d.a(B0.05 mg)
0.2990.31*
n.d.a(B2 mg)
1.2490.59*
n.d.a(B0.1 mg)
n.d.a(B0.1 mg)
n.d.a(B0.5 mg)
2.2590.47**
700900 RAEb
Vitamin B1 (mg)
Vitamin B2 (mg)
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.7
mg
mg
Vitamin B3 (mg)
15
?
19
?
1.6
?
300
mg
Vitamin B5 (mg)
Vitamin B6 (mg)
Vitamin B7 (mg)
Vitamin B9 (mg)
Vitamin B12 (mg)
Vitamin C (mg)
Vitamin D2 (mg)
Vitamin D3 (mg)
Vitamin E (mg)
1.2
?
mg
300
mg
mg
mg
mg
22
7575
7.5 7.5
8 10
a-TE
an.d.?Not detected (below the limit of detection).
bRAE?Retinol activity equivalent (mg).
cRecommended daily allowance (RDA) for adult males and females based on Nordic nutritional recommendations (28).
a-TE?a-Tocopherol equivalent (mg).
*Concentrations were significantly different from those in meat (pB0.05).
**Concentrations were significantly different from those in meat (pB0.01).
Table II. Mean mineral concentrations per 100 g of edible raw tissue
Mean9SD
Meat (n?29)
Liver
(n?29)
Tallow
(n?15)
Bone marrow
(n?9)
RDAa
Female ElementMale
Zn (mg)6.890.2
5.491.0
3.390.7
3.093.2
3.591.7*
6.491.1*
41.1921.7*
48.7948.9*
0.290.1*
5.192.1
4.191.5
0.891.6
0.190.1*
339.79277.3*
3.191.3
0.290.5
7 mg9 mg
Ca (mg)1 g1 g
Fe (mg)
Se (mg)
15 mg
40 mg
9 mg
50 mg
aRecommended daily allowance (RDA) for adult males and females based on Nordic nutritional recommendations (28), the RDA for Ca is
based on data from the USDA (29).
*Concentrations were significantly different from those in meat (pB0.01).
Ammar Ali Hassan et al.
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Table III. Mean fatty acids concentration of reindeer meat, liver, tallow and bone marrow in 100g of edible raw tissue
Fatty acids
Mean9SD Meat (n?28)Liver (n?30) Tallow (n?3)Bone marrow (n?3)
Saturated (SFA)
C14:0 0.0290.01
0.0190.001
0.2690.10
0.0190.01
0.2390.05
1.3190.003
0.00290.001
0.00190.001
1.8490.16
0.0190.001**
0.0190.002
0.8090.21**
0.0590.02**
0.8190.08**
0.0190.003**
0.0190.001**
0.0190.001**
1.6290.23
0.7890.38
0.0790.02
15.5791.99
0.8990.11
19.2691.61
0.2290.06
0.0290.01
0.0290.02
36.8393.66
0.6890.28
0.0790.02
14.8491.65
0.3590.06
3.2290.46
0.0690.01
0.0190.001
0.0190.001
19.2492.42
C15:0
C16:0
C17:0
C18:0
C20:0
C22:0
C24:0
SSFA
Monounsaturated (MUFA)
C14:1
C14:1 n-5
0.00290.001a
0.00290.001a
0.00290.001
0.0290.01
0.0190.002
0.00390.002
0.0190.003
0.3790.12
0.00490.001
0.00290.001
0.00390.001a
0.00190.0002
0.00190.0001a
0.00390.001
0.00190.0003
0.4391.14
0.00390.002a
0.00190.002a
0.00390.001
0.0390.02**
0.0290.01**
0.0190.004*
0.0390.01**
0.9190.30**
0.00190.001*
0.0190.002**
n.d.
0.00190.001
0.000290.0002*
0.00290.001**
0.00290.001**
1.0290.35
0.0690.03
?
0.0490.01
0.6590.12
0.3390.04
0.2090.02
0.4690.06
31.7093.48
0.0290.01
0.1590.05
0.00390.001
n.d.
0.9490.20
?
0.3190.08
7.5492.18
0.1990.01
0.5290.03
1.9990.80
35.4491.15
0.0290.01
0.1390.02
C16:1 n-5
C16:1 n-7
C16:1 n-9
C17:1
C18:1 n-7
C18:1 n-9
C20:1 n-7
C20:1 n-9
C21:1 n-11
?
C22:1 n-7n.d.
C22:1 n-9
n.d.n.d.
C22:1 n-110.00390.001
n.d.
33.6293.83
0.0190.01
n.d.
47.1094.48
C24:1 n-9
SMUFA
Polyunsaturated (PUFA)
C16:2 n-7 0.000290.0002
0.00190.001
0.0190.004
0.0190.004
0.00290.001
0.00190.001
0.00190.0004
0.00190.0002
0.0190.004
0.000290.0004
0.00390.001**
0.0290.01
0.0390.01
0.00390.003**
0.0190.01*
0.0190.003**
0.00290.001**
0.0390.01
0.0190.01
n.d.
0.3690.07
0.0490.03
0.0290.001
0.0390.01
0.00290.002
0.0190.002
0.0190.002
0.0190.004
n.d.
0.3390.06
0.0490.01
0.0390.02
0.0490.02
0.0190.01
0.0190.003
0.0190.01
C16:3 n-4
C16:4 n-1
C18:3 n-3
C18:4 n-3
C18:5 n-3
C20:3 n-3
C20:4 n-3
C20:5 n-3
Level of selected nutrients in reindeer
Citation: Int J Circumpolar Health 2012, 71: 17997 - DOI: 10.3402/ijch.v71i0.17997
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Table III (Continued)
Fatty acids Mean9SD Meat (n?28) Liver (n?30)Tallow (n?3) Bone marrow (n?3)
C22:5 n-3 0.0490.01
0.00390.001
0.1590.05
0.000290.0001
0.00290.001
0.0190.003
0.0990.04
n.d.
0.0190.004
0.000190.0003
0.3490.11
0.0790.02
0.2690.09
3.7190.003
0.2690.09**
0.0590.02**
0.3690.06**
0.000290.001
0.0190.002**
0.0290.01
0.4290.07**
n.d.
0.0790.02**
0.00190.001
1.3090.17
0.4090.10
0.8890.12
2.2090.004
0.0290.01
0.00390.001
0.8290.19
0.00490.001
n.d.
0.0190.001
0.1190.03
n.d.
0.0190.002
0.0190.01
1.4790.33
0.1490.05
0.9690.21
6.8690.10
0.0390.01
n.d.
0.6790.18
0.0190.004
n.d.
0.0190.002
0.1290.04
n.d.
0.00490.002
0.0290.01
1.3490.14
0.1790.05
0.8490.14
4.9490.15
C22:6 n-3
C18:2 n-6
C18:3 n-6
C20:2 n-6
C20:3 n-6
C20:4 n-6
C22:2 n-6
C22:4 n-6
C22:5 n-6
SPUFA
SPUFA n-3
SPUFA n-6
SPUFA n-6/ SPUFA n-3
aObservations less than those given in the main column: Meat (n?14) and liver (n?17) for C14:1. Meat (n?14) and liver (n?13) for C14:1 n-5. Meat (n?14) and liver (n?13) for C14:1 n-5.
Meat (n?27) for C21:1 n-11. Meat (n?27) for C22:1 n-9.
n.d?Not detected.
*Concentrations were significantly different from those in meat (pB0.05).
**Concentrations were significantly different from those in meat (pB0.01).
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Table III. Eight polyunsaturated fatty acids n-3 (PUFA
n-3) were detected in the meat, liver and tallow, while 7
were detected in bone marrow.
Docosapentaenoic acid, DPA (C22:5 n-3) and a-
linolenic acid, as well as ALA (C18:3 n-3), were detected
in all studied reindeer tissues and had the highest
concentrations among PUFA n-3 (Table III). Meat had
the lowest concentration for PUFA n-3 among all the
sample types.
Seven types of PUFA n-6 were found in the meat and
liver, while 6 were found in the tallow and bone marrow.
The highest concentration of PUFA n-6 was 0.1590.05
g/100 g in meat for linoleic acid (C18:2 n-6), followed by
0.4290.07 g/100 g in liver for arachidonic acid, AA
(C20:4 n-6). Tallow and bone marrow had the lowest
PUFA n-6 concentrations. The eicosapentaenoic acid,
EPA (C20:5 n-3) concentrations in meat, liver, tallow
andbone marrow were
0.0190.002 and 0.0190.01g/100 g, respectively. How-
ever, the docosahexaenoic acid, DHA (C22:6 n-3) con-
centrations in meat, liver and tallow were 0.00390.001,
0.0590.02 and 0.00390.001 g/100 g, respectively. The
DHA was not detected in bone marrow samples. The
ratios of n-6 to n-3 PUFA in meat, liver, tallow and bone
marrow were 3.7190.003, 2.2090.004, 6.8690.10 and
4.9490.15 g/100 g, respectively.
The mean percentages (g/100 g) of the total lipid
content in meat, liver, tallow and bone marrow were
290.84 (n?27), 5.6490.88 (n?31), 78.8996.84 (n?3)
and 71.79915.99 (n?3), respectively.
As expected, the results from Tables I, II and III
revealedconsiderable differences
between the meat and the rest of the studied tissues.
These differences were statistically signifi-cant (pB0.05),
except for the Se and Fe in tallow and bone marrow,
the total lipid in tallow and bone marrow and the
fatty acids C14:1, C14:1 n-5, C16:1 n-5, C16:1 n-7, C16:2
n-7, C16:4n-1, C18:3
n-6, C20:5 n-3, C22:1 n-7, C22:5 n-6 in the meat and
liver. In most cases, the liver, tallow and bone marrow
had higher nutrient levels in comparison to meat
(pB0.05).
Significant correlations in fatty acid concentrations
between meat and the other studied tissues were only
detected between the meat and liver. The fatty acids that
were significantly corre-lated were C16:3 n-4 (r??0.43,
pB0.05), C18:1 n-7 (r?0.78, pB0.01), C18:2 n-6
(r?0.45, pB0.05), C22:4 n-6 (r?0.44, pB0.05) and
C22:5 n-3 (r?0.48, pB0.01). No significant correlation
was detected for total lipid content between the meat and
liver. Moreover, the correlation was not tested between
meat-tallow and meat-bone marrow due to the small
number of animals (n?3) included in the total lipid
analysis of tallow and bone marrow.
0.0190.004,0.0390.01,
in nutrientlevels
n-3, C18:3n-6, C20:3
Discussion
Meat from the semi-domesticated reindeer is lean and a
good source of vitamin B12, docosapentaenoic acid
(C22:5 n-3) and a-linolenic acid (C18:3 n-3). Statistically
significant differences (pB0.05) were observed in most of
the nutrient levels between meat and the rest of the
studied tissues. Liver had the highest concentrations
of vitamin A, all vitamin B types, vitamin C, iron,
selenium and the total amount of polyunsaturated fatty
acids (n-3).
Additionally, liver was the only edible tissue that
contained vitamins B9 and C. The vast majority of the
vitamin concentrations in liver, tallow and bone marrow
were significantly corre-lated with the concentrations in
meat (pB0.05). To the best of the authors’ knowledge,
this study is unique and the first of its kind to include a
relatively large number of animals (31 reindeer) and to
study nutrient concentrations from the meat, liver, tallow
and bone marrow of semi-domesti-cated reindeer in
Norway.
The mean concentration in the meat for vitamin B3 in
this study is in agreement with Rastas (18). Still, our
concentrations of vitamins B1, B2 and E were half the
values in the referred study, whereas the vitamin A
concentration was 3 times higher. Vitamins B9 and C in
meat were not detected in our study, though their
respective mean concentration (n?24) has been formerly
reported to be 2.6 and 3.3 mg/100 g (7). In agree-ment
with a study by Nieminen (7), the meat and liver samples
exhibited a similar mean value for vitamin E. However,
concentrations reported in the same study for vitamins
B1, B2 and B3 in meat were slightly higher with an
exception for vitamin A, which was 3 times higher in our
study. The liver contained higher vitamin concentrations
than the meat, with the exception of vitamin E, which
had a similar concentration in both sample types. The
liver of reindeer, pork and cattle was also reported to be
much richer in vitamins compared to meat (7). Although
liver is rich in vitamin B9 (folic acid), it is difficult to find
the entire amount in raw tissue when heated since
cooking food at a high heat will reduce or demolish the
amount of vitamin B9. Concentrations of vitamins B2,
B3, B6 and B9 in caribou meat were reported to be 1.14
mg, 10.91 mg, 0.47 mg and 11.80 mg/100 g, respectively,
while the concentrations of these vitamins in liver were
found to be 1.58 mg, 15.64 mg, 1.97 mg and 374.30 mg/
100 g, respectively. Furthermore, vitamin B2 and B6
concentrations in bone marrow have been reported to be
0.30 mg and 0.09 mg/100 g, respectively (19).
In one of the districts from which the samples were
collected, vitamin A concentrations in meat and internal
organs were much higher than in the other districts. The
large variation in vitamin A in one district resulted in
standard deviation that was higher than the mean
concentrations in meat and bone marrow. Nonetheless,
Level of selected nutrients in reindeer
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the variation in the vitamin A concentration in meat,
liver, tallow and bone marrow in this district was
harmonic, that is, it followed the same pattern for vitamin
A in other districts in which the concentrations were the
highest in liver, followed by tallow, bone marrow and
meat.
The vitamin A mean concentrations in meat and liver
were 19.93922.55 and 20915.5095310.22 RAE/100 g,
respectively, in our study, whereas Nieminen’s respective
concentrations were 6.60 and 26000 RAE/100 g (7). The
vitamin E concen-trations for meat, liver and tallow of
caribou were found to be 0.15, 12.64 and 0.68 mg/100 g,
respectively, while the respective vitamin A concentra-
tions were 0.15, 12.64 and 0.68 mg/100 g (20). The
concentration of vitamin D in our study was below the
detection limits of all sample types. However, its con-
centration of 1.40 mg/100 g was only detected in the liver
of caribou (20). The vitamin C concentration in the meat
and liver of caribou were reported to be 0.86 and 23.76
mg/100 g, respectively (21).
The Se concentrations in meat, liver, tallow and bone
marrow (Table II) were characterized by variations
among both districts and in animals within the same
district (results not shown). One animal had a remarkably
high Se concentra-tion (data not presented). These
variations have resulted in standard deviations which
are similar or higher than the mean concentrations.
The meat Se concentration in this study was 12.5% lower
than the value of 24.0 mg/100 g reported elsewhere (7,18),
whereas the liver Se concen-tration in our study was
5 times higher than the value of 10.0 mg/100 g reported by
Fediuk et al. (21). The concentrations of meat and liver
Ca, Zn and Fe in this study are comparable with those
reported in previous studies on reindeer and caribou
(7,18,21,22).
Even though most of our results on fatty acids in
reindeer meat were 34% to 68% lower than those reported
by Sampels et al. (12), the concentrations of docosapen-
taenoic acid, DPA (C22:5 n-3) and adrenic acid (C22:4
n-6) were in accordance with the same reference. Com-
pared to Sampels et al. (12), the low results on fatty acids
in the present study may be explained in part by the fact
that the reindeer used by Sampels et al. were calves
(about 10 months) that had been fed a pelleted feed
mixture for two months prior to slaughter. The concen-
trations of fatty acids C18:2 n-6, C18:3 n-6, C18:3 n-3
and C18:4 n-3 in reindeer bone marrow reported by
Soppela and Nieminen (23) were 2 to 19 times higher
than those reported in our study, while the fatty acid
C20:4 n-6 was twice as high in our study. Moreover,
SPUFA n-3 and n-6 in bone marrow reported by Soppela
and Nieminen (23) were twice as high than those found in
our study.
It is a well-established fact that aquatic animals
have higher concentrations of PUFA n-3 compared to
terrestrial ones. Nevertheless, the PUFA n-3 concentra-
tions of DPA and ALA in reindeer meat from this study
are comparable to those formerly reported for DPA and
ALA in crab, scampi, mussels and oysters and DPA in
code (24). A study on turkey meat reported a DHA
concentration comparable with our results for reindeer
meat, whereas the concentrations of DPA and ALA were
lower in turkey meat (25). Species, animal diet, environ-
mental and genetic factors were reported to affect the
fatty acid composition of meats (26).
The results for the low total lipid percentage in the
present study from reindeer meat is in accordance with
previous reindeer and caribou studies (7,12,13,21,22).
With its lower fat content compared to domestic rumi-
nants, this seems to indicate that reindeer meat can be
considered an excellent source in meeting the consumer
demand for low-fat meat. The total lipid percentage of
rein-deer liver measured in this study is 5.64%, though
the total lipid percentages in the liver of reindeer and
caribou have formerly been reported to be 4% and 3%,
respectively (7,21). The total meat lipid of wild ruminants
was reported to be lower than that for domestic
ruminants (27). Moreover, the total meat lipids in
chickens and calves are comparable to those of reindeer,
while turkey meat was reported to have a lower total meat
lipid percentage (25).
Based on Nordic nutritional recommenda-tions (28),
the concentration of nutrients in semi-domesticated
reindeer meat, liver, tallow and bone marrow could
meet or contribute to the recommended daily allowance
(RDA), see Tables I, II, III. In addition, a ratio of n-6 to
n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids between 3 and 9 in the
diet is considered to be sufficient in meeting the RDA
(28). The ratios of SPUFA n-6/ SPUFA n-3 obtained
from our study on meat, tallow and bone marrow fell
between 3.71 and 6.87. The calculations for the contribu-
tion to the RDA done in this study were based on raw
tissues; therefore, it is important to consider the impact of
cooking since cooking will have an effect on the nutrient
content.
The overview for the concentrations of some of
the nutrients on reindeer meat and liver from this study,
as well as the nutrient concentrations for the other meat
and liver types presented in the Norwegian Food
Composition Database (1), is shown in Table IV and V.
In a similar manner, an overview of the nutrient
concentrations on rein-deer meat from our study and
the meat of other cervides (e.g. moose and roe deer)
presented in the United States National Nutrient Data-
base for Standard Reference (29) are listed in Table VI.
Such overviews should be put in a nutritional context in
terms of which meat type may be the best source for the
specific nutrient, rather than in a comparative one.
Species, animal diet, physi-ological and methodological
variations need to be taken into consideration. The
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Table IV. Mean vitamins, minerals and total lipid concentrations of reindeer meat and other meat types.
Data from the Norwegian Foods Databaseb
Nutrient*Reindeera
95%CIa
LambBeef CalvesPork Chicken
Vitamin A (RAE)19.939.37?30.47
0.05?0.12
0.22?0.29
4.04?4.51
0.56?1.72
0.17?0.21
0.75?1.71
?
2.48?4.20
0.34?0.62
5.90?7.71
5.02?5.75
2.99?3.52
1.79?4.28
1.67?2.33
7.00
0.09
7.00
?
4.00
11.00
Vitamin B1 (mg)0.090.03
0.09
0.22
5.10
?
0.40
?
5.00
0.42 0.14
Vitamin B2 (mg)
Vitamin B3 (mg)
0.26
4.28
0.15
6.00
?
0.16
?
1.00
0.11
4.10
?
0.15
?
3.00
0.15
5.10
?
0.23
?
5.00
0.18
7.80
?
0.38
?
11.00
Vitamin B5 (mg)1.14
Vitamin B6 (mg)
Vitamin B7 (mg)
Vitamin B9 (mg)
Vitamin B12 (mg)
Vitamin E (mg)
0.19
1.23
B2.00
3.341.30 1.00 1.300.50
0.60
0.40
0.480.200.20 0.200.20
Zinc (mg)
Calcium (mg)
6.80
5.40
2.30
10.00
3.40
7.00
4.30
12.00
2.40
6.00
1.20
6.00
Iron (mg)
Selenium (mg)
Total lipid %
3.30 1.80
3.00
1.60
4.00
1.50 0.800.70
3.00 6.00 10.00 13.00
2.10
2.0017.10 9.003.00 15.50
*Vitamins C, D2 and D3 in reindeer were below the limit of detections (LOD); their values in other animals were not given by the referred
database (1).
aResults on reindeer meat from this study.
bResults based on data from the Norwegian Food Composition Database (1).
??Not given.
Note: Values in bold are the ones that fall within a 95% CI for mean nutrients values of reindeer meat in this study.
Table V. Mean vitamins, minerals and total lipid concentrations per 100 g of raw reindeer liver and other raw liver types
Data from the NFC Databaseb
Nutrient Reindeera
95% CIa
Lamb CattlePig Chicken
Vitamin A (RAE)20915.5018430.24?23400.76
0.18?0.47
2.55?2.70
12.67?17.13
5.26?6.44
0.49?0.57
15.76?23.14
216.42?389.13
139.03?184.42
5.83?17.92
32760
23220
235809702
Vitamin B1 (mg)0.33
0.390.30 0.43
0.63
Vitamin B2 (mg)2.633.49
14.00
?
0.53
?
281
2.79 2.863.40
Vitamin B3 (mg)
Vitamin B5 (mg)
14.90
5.85
10.30
?
0.74
?
529
11.00
?
0.64
?
813
9.20
?
0.80
?
740
Vitamin B6 (mg)
Vitamin B7 (mg)
Vitamin B9 (mg)
Vitamin B12 (mg)
Vitamin C (mg)
Vitamin D2 (mg)
Vitamin D3 (mg)
Vitamin E (mg)
0.53
19.45
302.78
161.73114.00 20030.00
15.00
21.00
11.88
B0.50
B0.50
0.48
20.0025.00 34.00
0.501.701.100.20
0.50
1.50
3.90
1.70
1.30
3.80
1.10
1.50
0.20
0.200.39?0.57
2.80?4.11
6.02?6.85
32.84?49.34
30.07?67.24
5.32?5.97
Zinc (mg)3.508.70 2.40
Calcium (mg)6.40 5.00 4.005.007.00
Iron (mg)
Selenium (mg)
Total lipid %
41.109.607.40 18.70
46.00
7.30
44.00
48.7024.0015.00
5.644.10 3.20 3.403.80
aResults on reindeer liver from this study.
bResults based on data from the Norwegian Food Composition (NFC) Database (1).
??Not given.
Note: Values in bold are the ones that fall within a 95% CI for the mean nutrient values of reindeer liver in this study.
Level of selected nutrients in reindeer
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nutrient values, which are written in bold for other meat
and liver types (Table IV, Table V and Table VI), fell
within the 95% confidence interval for the mean nutrient
values of reindeer meat and liver in this study.
As a result, the nutrient values in bold did not differ
from those values obtained on reindeer meat and liver.
The opposite was true for the data on other meat and
liver types not written in bold, as they differ from the
values obtained from our study. Furthermore, it was
difficult to say something about whether these differences
were statistically significant or not since neither confi-
dence intervals nor standard deviations were available on
the referred data used in the overview.
There was a scarcity of slaughtered animals aged
1.5 years; thus we were compelled to choose animals
(30%, n?9) out of the protocol scope (20%, n?6 claves
and 10%, n?3 adult animals). The deviation made by
choosing animals (30%) out of the protocol age scope
may influence the mean nutrient value if nutrient levels
tend to be age dependent. Nevertheless, our raw data
revealed little or no varia-tion in nutrient concentrations
among the 31 animals. The vitamin levels of reindeer
calves were reported to be higher (7?10%) than those of
adult animals (7,30).
The vitamin analysis in meat, liver, tallow and bone
marrow was based on the pooled sample. The advantage
of the pooled sample is that fewer samples have to be
analysed, thereby being a time-saving and cost-beneficial
method. The disadvantage is that the individual nutrient
concentration is based on the combined concentration of
all animals in the pooled sample, and cannot be obtained
for each animal on an individual basis. Hence, all the
animals in the specific pooled sample received the same
nutrient concentration.
The bone marrow samples were very limited, and
varied in relation to the number of different laboratory
analyses types conducted in this study (see Tables I, II
and III). This was due to practical reasons around the
sample collection and an insufficient sample quantity.
Consequently, concentrations of fatty acids on tallow and
bone marrow (n?3 animals) may only be indicative.
In conclusion, the study provided information about
the nutrient quality of reindeer meat, liver, tallow and
bone marrow. The judge-ment as to whether nutrient
concentrations are high or good sources for humans
was based on how much these nutrients may contribute
to the recommended daily allowance (RDA). Semi-
domesticated reindeer meat is lean, thus it suit-ably meets
consumers’ need for low-fat meat, and meat is also a
good source of vitamin B12, docos-apentaenoic acid
(DPA) and a-linolenic acid (ALA). In addition, reindeer
liver contains high concentrations of vitamins A, B9,
B12, Fe and Se. The ratios of SPUFA n-6/ SPUFA n-3 in
meat, tallow and bone marrow are high enough to cover
Table VI. Mean vitamins, minerals and total lipid concentrations of reindeer meat and other related species meat
Data from the USDA National Nutrient Databaseb
Nutrient*Reindeera
CaribouDeerMoose Antelope
Vitamin A (RAE)19.930.00.0 0.0
0.07
0.24
5.00
?
?
?
?
?
4.00
?
2.80
0.0
Vitamin B1 (mg)0.09 0.320.22 0.30
Vitamin B2 (mg)
Vitamin B3 (mg)
0.26
4.28
0.72
5.50
0.48
6.37
?
0.37
?
4.00
0.60
?
?
?
?
?
?
0.0
?
1.30
Vitamin B5 (mg)1.14 2.50
Vitamin B6 (mg)
Vitamin B7 (mg)
Vitamin B9 (mg)
Vitamin B12 (mg)
Vitamin C (mg)
0.190.37
1.23
B2.00
3.34
B0.10
0.48
6.80
4.00
6.316.31
0.0
?
4.00
0.0
Vitamin E (mg)
Zinc (mg)
0.20
2.09
Calcium (mg) 5.4017.005.00
3.40
5.00
3.28
?
1.50
3.00
3.20
Iron (mg)
Selenium (mg)
Total lipid %
3.30 4.69
3.00 10.209.709.70
2.00
2.003.362.42
*Vitamins D2 and D3 in reindeer were below the limit of detections (LOD); their values in other related species were not given by the
referred database (29).
aResults on reindeer meat from this study, a 95% CI were given in Table V.
bResults based on data from the USDA National Nutrient Database (29).
??Missing or incomplete value.
Note: Values in bold are the ones that fall within a 95% CI for mean nutrient values of reindeer meat in this study.
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the RDA. The tallow contains a high concentration of
vitamin B12, while bone marrow contains the highest
concentrations of vitamin E and Ca. The presence of
reindeer meat, liver, tallow and bone marrow in a meal is
a good approach for meeting or contributing to con-
sumers’ nutrient RDA needs. The vast majority of
nutrient concen-trations in reindeer liver, tallow and
bone marrow were significantly (pB0.05) different from
the concentrations in meat (mostly higher than those
found in meat). Most vitamin concentrations in liver,
tallow and bone marrow were signifi-cantly correlated
with the concentrations in meat (pB0.05).
Further research, which includes more animals from
many different grazing districts, is needed to take into
account factors that we could not investigate in this
study, such as geographical variations, in order to look
into their association to the nutrient composition of
reindeer.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the owners and opera-tors of the
reindeer abattoirs from which the samples were collected for their
unlimited cooperation. We are also grateful to Charlotta Rylander
for her help in the sample collection and laboratory analysis. Our
gratitude also goes to Elen Kirsten Anti and Ha ˚vard Svendsen for
their contri-bution to the sample collection. The study was funded
by the Reindeer Husbandry Development Fund (RUF), Alta, and
by the Centre for Sami Health Research, Karasjok, Norway.
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*Ammar Ali Hassan
Centre for Sami Health Research
Department of Community Medicine
Faculty of Health Sciences
University of Tromsø
N-9037 Tromsø
NORWAY
Email: ammar.ali.hassan@uit.no
Ammar Ali Hassan et al.
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Citation: Int J Circumpolar Health 2012, 71: 17997 - DOI: 10.3402/ijch.v71i0.17997