Groundwater resource evaluation in the Gwalior area, India,using satellite data: an integrated geomorphologicaland geophysical approach

Abstract

The ever increasing demand for freshwater and
overexploitation of existing reserves has necessitated the
search for new resources, particularly in hard-rock terrains
where groundwater is a vital and sole source for drinking
and other activities. A fast and cost effective way of
groundwater exploration is the study and analysis of
remote sensing data. In the present study, various geomorphic
units in the drought-prone and hard-rock-dominated
Gwalior area, India, were identified using satellite
images and classified into four categories: poor, moderate,
good and excellent groundwater prospect zones. The area
was scanned through vertical electrical soundings for the
corroboration of inferred categories. The borehole yield
data corroborate the results. Geomorphological mapping
through satellite images, coupled with electrical resistivity
surveys, provided vital information about spatial and
depth-wise variation of aquifers in the area. Groundwater
prospect mapping gives a rational picture of subsurface
water resources and is helpful in predictive groundwater
resource management.

Full text

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123
Hydrogeology Journal
Official Journal of the
International Association of
Hydrogeologists

ISSN 1431-2174

Hydrogeol J
DOI 10.1007/
s10040-011-0758-6
Groundwater resource evaluation in the
Gwalior area, India, using satellite data:
an integrated geomorphological and
geophysical approach
Prafull K. Singh, Suyash Kumar &
U. C. Singh

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123
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Groundwater resource evaluation in the Gwalior area, India,
using satellite data: an integrated geomorphological
and geophysical approach
Prafull K. Singh & Suyash Kumar & U. C. Singh
Abstract The ever increasing demand for freshwater and
overexploitation of existing reserves has necessitated the
search for new resources, particularly in hard-rock terrains
where groundwater is a vital and sole source for drinking
and other activities. A fast and cost effective way of
groundwater exploration is the study and analysis of
remote sensing data. In the present study, various geo-
morphic units in the drought-prone and hard-rock-domi-
nated Gwalior area, India, were identified using satellite
images and classified into four categories: poor, moderate,
good and excellent groundwater prospect zones. The area
was scanned through vertical electrical soundings for the
corroboration of inferred categories. The borehole yield
data corroborate the results. Geomorphological mapping
through satellite images, coupled with electrical resistivity
surveys, provided vital information about spatial and
depth-wise variation of aquifers in the area. Groundwater
prospect mapping gives a rational picture of subsurface
water resources and is helpful in predictive groundwater
resource management.
Keywords Groundwaterprospect.Remotesensing.
Geomorphology.Resistivity.India
Introduction
Remote-sensing data and geographic information system
(GIS) techniques have provided rapid and cost-effective
means of natural-resource surveying and management.
Since groundwater occurs in subsurface reservoirs, its
identification and location is based on indirect analyses of
some directly observed terrain features like geological and
geomorphic attributes and their hydrologic characteristics.
Satellite remote sensing has made it plausible to define the
spatial distribution of different groundwater prospect
classes on the basis of geomorphology and other asso-
ciated features. Satellite remote sensing in conjunction
with GIS offers great prospect for water-resource develop-
ment and management (Krishnamurthy and Srinivas 1995;
Saraf and Chaudhary 1998; Pietroniro and Prowse 2002;
Jaiswal et al. 2005; Hoffmann and Sander 2007). It
supports the quantification of hydrological parameters in
data collection and transmission to facilitate rapid analysis
of various aspects of water resources (Hoffmann 2005).
A number of researchers have successfully used
electrical resistivity methods for groundwater prospecting
in various terrains (Prakash and Mishra 1993; Ballukraya
2001; Rai et al. 2005; Idornigle et al. 2006; Shrivastva and
Bhattacharya 2006) and have evidently brought out the
relationship between electrical and hydrologic properties
of the aquifers. Keeping this in view, the present study
attempts to delineate prospective locations for ground-
water exploitation in the drought prone and hard-rock-
dominated Gwalior area of India, using an integrated
approach of the above-mentioned techniques.
Hypothesis and objectives
The geological and geomorphological backgrounds of an
area govern the occurrence, movement and storage of
groundwater. Geomorphological factors directly or indi-
rectly affect the hydrogeological setting of the area,
whereas physiographic elements like relief and slope
throw light on the amount of runoff and infiltration. All
these factors control infiltration and consequently the
development of aquifers. Hence, each hydrogeological
study emphasizes the input from topographic maps and
Received: 10 May 2010 /Accepted: 20 June 2011
* Springer-V erlag 2011
P . K. Singh ())
Department of Civil Engineering,
SAM College of Engineering and Technology,
Raisen Road, Bhopal, 462021, India
e-mail: pks.jiwaji@gmail.com
Tel.: +91-9301220503
Fax: +91-755-4099800
S. Kumar
Department of Geology, Govt. PG Science College,
Gwalior, 474009, India
U. C. Singh
School of Studies in Earth Science,
Jiwaji University,
Gwalior, 474011, India
Hydrogeology Journal DOI 10.1007/s10040-011-0758-6
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satellite images in generating a database for a particular
area. With this background information, it is plausible to
demarcate the groundwater prospect zones using geo-
morphic attributes. However, in the presence of diverse
terrain conditions, various assumptions and interpretations
warrant substantiation with the ground veracities. This
hypothesis forms the objective of delineating groundwater
prospect zones in the present study and its validation with
the help of vertical electrical soundings (VES) and other
field data.
Study area
The study area (Fig. 1) forms a small basin (~405 km2)
drained by River Morar and is located in the Gwalior
district of Madhya Pradesh, India, (latitudes 26° 5′–26°
25′N and longitude 78° 10′–78° 25′E). Situated at an
average elevation of 197 m above sea level (m asl),
Gwalior is one of the erstwhile princely cities, with a
population of over 1.2 million. Dominated by semi-arid
climate marked by extreme temperatures and erratic
rainfall patterns, the city is among one of the hottest in
India. The climate on the whole is dry except during the
south-west monsoon season (June–October). Being part of
a rain shadow zone, the area receives an average rainfall
of < 600 mm. May–June is the hottest part of the year
with the mean daily maximum and minimum temperatures
at 40.5 and 25.7°C respectively. Hot, dry winds blow
during April and May and the heat is intense with the
maximum temperatures going above 45°C on some days.
Boreholes and wells are the major source of water supply
for drinking, agriculture and other activities. Depleting
groundwater levels are common, the condition being
further aggravated by frequent drought-like situations.
The incessant water scarcity and the ever-increasing
demand for agriculture and industries have put immense
stresses on the limited groundwater resources in the area
and have prompted the need to locate additional sources.
Geological setting
The intra-cratonic Gwalior basin is situated on the north-
western fringes of the granitic Bundelkhand massif
(Fig. 2). The Gwalior group of lithounits rest unconform-
ably over Bundelkhand granite and are comprised of basal
arenaceous Par formation overlain by volcano-sedimen-
tary sequences of Morar formation consisting of ferrugi-
nous shale with bands of chert, jasper and limestone. The
predominant rocks in the study area comprise of sand-
stone, shale, quartzite, doleritic dykes and alluvium. The
weathered zones of shale, sandstone and alluvium depos-
its, which are an aggregation of medium-to-coarse-grained
unconsolidated materials, form the principal groundwater
reservoirs in the area. The thickness of this weathered
zone is generally greater in the northern portion. In
general, two to three water-bearing formations occur
within a depth of 100 m.
The Gwalior group of rocks is divided into two
formations: Par formation and Morar formation, covering
northeastern and the central parts of the district respec-
tively. Presence of sporadic mafic intrusives (dolerite
dykes) within the Morar Formation reveals that the Morar
deposits are younger than the Par deposits. The Gwalior
Group of rocks overlie the Vindhyans group and are the
youngest rocks in the region. The water-yielding capacity
of rocks largely depends on the extent of fracturing,
openness, size of fracture, and nature of the interconnec-
tions between fractures. The area is covered by alluvium,
sandstone and shales and the occurrence of groundwater
in different formations varies with the rock type. The
thickness of alluvium varies between 10 and 30 m. It is
the most extensive aquifer in the area.
Materials and methods
In order to demarcate the groundwater prospect zones of
the Morar River basin, different thematic maps were
Fig. 1
Location map of the Morar River Basin
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prepared from the remote sensing and conventional data.
Indian remote sensing satellite data (IRS-1D LISS-III+
PAN) were collected from the National Remote Sensing
Center (NRSC), Hyderabad, India. The IRS-ID PAN and
LISS-III satellite imageries of the area (Feb 2003; path 97,
row 53) were georeferenced and Survey of India (SOI)
toposheets on 1:50,000 scale (Nos. 54 J/3, J/4, J/7 and J/8)
were used as reference for taking ground control points.
Further, geocoded images were merged to obtain a fused,
high-resolution output in Erdas Imagine 8.6 image
processing software (Table 1). Thematic maps of slope
and geomorphology of the area were generated by
applying various digital image processing techniques,
which involved contrast stretching, edge enhancement
and principal-component analysis.
These thematic maps were converted into raster format
before they were brought into a GIS environment. The
groundwater prospect zones were obtained by overlaying
all the thematic maps using weighted overlay methods
associated with the spatial analysis tool in Arc-GIS
software. During weighted overlay analysis, a ranking
was given to each individual parameter of each thematic
map and weights were assigned according to the influence
of that particular feature on the groundwater occurrence
and movement. The thematic maps were given a suitable
weight and ranking in order to reveal the hydrological
condition of the study area as described in the following
section Integration of thematic maps. The thematic maps
were reclassified by assigning weights to obtain a
composite map representing different groundwater pros-
pect zones. The ground verification of the hydrogeological
conditions was carried out by scanning the area using
VES at 24 stations, using Schlumberger electrode config-
uration and a half spread of 100 m. The VES data were
processed by the resistivity sounding interpretation soft-
ware IPI2WIN (Bobachev 2003).
Fig. 2
Regional geological map of the Gwalior Basin
Table 1 Details of the data used
Type of data/software Details Sources
IRS-ID LISS III and PAN digital formatPath/row: 97/53
Date: 22 February,2003
Toposheet Nos. 54 J/3, J/4,J/7 and J/8
Scale: 1:50,000
Scale: 1:250,000
National Remote Sensing Center (NRSC),
Hyderabad, India
Survey of India (SOI) Dehradun, India Survey of India (SOI) toposheets
Geological quadrangle mapGeological Survey of India,
Hyderabad, India
Erdas India Pvt Ltd.
ESRI India
Erdas Imagine 8.6
Arc GIS 9.2
Image processing software
GIS software
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Results and discussion
Geomorphology
Space-borne images have been used extensively in geo-
morphological studies since the availability of early
Landsat data. Geomorphology focuses on landform
description/classification, process characterization and the
association between landform and processes, while remote
sensing is able to provide information on the location/
distribution of landforms, surface/subsurface composition
and surface elevation (Smith and Pain 2009).
V arious geomorphic units identified from satellite
images have been used for groundwater prospect mapping
in different parts of India (Jha et al. 2010; Singh and Singh
2009; Mukherjee 2008; Lokesh and Narayana 1996 and
Rao 2002). These studies indicate that groundwater
prospects are more promising in the valley fills and
alluvial plains. V alley fills are associated with thick
alluvium and weathered material, which provide high
porosity and permeability required for the occurrence,
movement and storage of groundwater.
Physiographic elements govern the amount of runoff
and infiltration which directly or indirectly affect the
occurrence and movement of groundwater. Based on the
IRS 1D satellite data, along with field surveys, a landform
map of the study area was generated. Standard digital
image enhancement techniques (linear contrast stretching,
high pass and edge detector convolution filters for spatial
enhancement and histogram equalization) had been
applied for feature extraction. Principal component anal-
ysis (with principal components PC1, PC2 and PC3) was
carried out for the discrimination of geomorphic units.
Geomorphologically, the area is classified into different
units covered by denudational hills, structural hills,
dissected residual hills, pediments, pediplain, buried
pediplain, valley fills and alluvial plain as shown in (Fig. 3).
These units are elaborated in the following heads/paragraphs.
Denudational hills
These are the massive hills with resistant rock bodies that
are formed due to differential erosion and weathering
processes. These denudational hills occur in the southern
portion of the area and have high relief. On the satellite
image, these landforms were identified by dark brownish-
red colour due to thick forest cover. They show steeply
sloping topography with high relief developed over the
Par sandstone. These hills are characterized by high
surface runoff and are categorized as poor groundwater-
prospect zones.
Structural hills
Structural hills are represented by the presence of strong
structural controls. They are located in the northwestern
fringes of the area and are mainly composed of Kaimur
sandstone. These are characterized by red tone with rough
texture on the satellite image. These hills are covered with
dense forest. Groundwater prospect is better than that of
the residual and denudational hills.
Residual hills
These are isolated low relief terrains formed due to
differential erosion and stand as residue like small hills.
They are exposed throughout the area in patches. On
satellite images, they are seen as dark greenish brown
patches representing forest cover. They are mostly runoff
zones and rate of infiltration is negligible; groundwater
prospect is poor.
Valley fills
These are valley courses which are filled with colluvial/
alluvial materials. These are basically located along the
rivers/streams, in low-lying areas, within the pediments/
pediplain/buried pediments. These geomorphic units have
a varying range of grain size, less compaction and high
permeability resulting in high infiltration. They are
considered as favourable groundwater zones. The ground-
water yield depends on the thickness of the material
Fig. 3
Geomorphological map of the Morar River Basin
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deposited. They usually contain moisture and the vegeta-
tion follows a linear pattern, both of which help in their
easy identification on satellite images. These valley fills
are located in the central part of the study area and are
composed of loose unconsolidated sediments like pebbles,
cobbles, sands and silts. The groundwater prospect ranges
from moderate to good.
Pediments
Pediments are gently sloping areas with erosional bed-
rock, situated in between hills and plains consisting of a
veneer of detritus and broad undulating rock floor. These
landforms show light green colour and fine texture in
satellite images; they are observed in the north-western
foothills of Kaimur sandstone and denudational hills. The
pediments which are associated with ferruginous pebbles
were identified by their reddish-green colour and coarse
texture. In pediment zones, groundwater prospect is poor
to negligible.
Pediplain
This is a gently inclined sloping surface of boulders,
gravels and sand, extending from the abrupt base of steep
mountain faces to the flat foreground. These are underlain
by thick layers of stream-deposited alluvium. It has been
observed that the pediplains present in the study area
possess varying lithology. They are located in the northern
portion of the area. On satellite images, they show
yellowish–red colour and coarse texture. Pediplains are
covered, under thick vegetation. They are good zones for
groundwater prospect.
Buried pediplains
These are the zones with variable depths of weathering
and buried by soil, colluvium and regolith. These occur in
the central region along the river sides. They exhibit
darker tones on satellite images and have high soil
moisture. Good groundwater prospect is available in this
unit.
Alluvial plains
These are the broad expanse of plains formed by the major
rivers and are generally found in the lower reaches,
comprising sand, silt, clay etc. On satellite images, they
show dark grey colour and smooth texture, as well as red
colour due to agricultural activities. They are found
mainly in the northern portion of the area. Most of the
agricultural activities are associated with this plain. These
plains have excellent groundwater prospects.
Slope map of the area
Runoff in higher slope regions is high causing less
infiltration. This factor significantly controls the develop-
ment of aquifers. A topographic slope map was prepared
from SRTM data (Jarvis et al. 2006) using Arc GIS
software and the entire area was classified into four
groups, ranging in total from 0 to>20°. The areas having
very gentle slope (0 to<3°) categorize as the zone of
excellent groundwater storage because of the nearly flat
landscape and high infiltration rate; about 60% of the area
is classified under this category. The areas having gentle
slope (3 to<10°) are considered as good zones for
groundwater storage due to slightly rolling topography.
The areas having moderately steep (10–20°) slope are
categorized as moderate zones for groundwater storage
because of relatively high runoff and low infiltration.
Lastly, the areas showing very steep (> 20°) slope are
considered as poor zones due to higher runoff, as shown in
Fig. 4.
Integration of thematic maps
The thematic maps of geomorphology and slope provide
certain clues for the occurrence of groundwater. In order to
get all these clues unified, it is essential to integrate these
data with appropriate weight factors (Sener et al. 2005;
Solomon and Quiel 2006). The thematic maps of the study
area were evaluated according to their hydrogeological
properties. Individual classes and suitable weights are
shown in Table 2.
The thematic maps were reclassified on the basis of
weights assigned and brought into the ‘raster calculator’
Fig. 4
Slope map of the Morar River Basin
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function of the spatial analysis tool of Arc GIS software
9.0 for integration. Every class in the thematic layer
was placed into one class, depending on their ground-
water prospect. Considering the effect with respect to
groundwater control, the different classes were given
suitable values according to their importance relative to
other classes in the same thematic layer. Thus, each
layer representing a particular theme was overlaid on
another to find the intersecting polygon. By applying
this method, a new map showing the integrated map of
two thematic maps was obtained. Finally, all the
polygons in the study area were reclassified into four
categories, from ‘poor’ to ‘excellent’ groundwater
prospect zones. (Fig. 5)
Validation of inferred groundwater prospect zones
For locating and identifying the presence of water-
bearing formations, application of electrical resistivity
methods is widely recognized (Zohdy et al. 1974;
Fitterman and Stewart 1986; Taylor et al. 1992;
Majumdar and Pal 2005; Ayolab 2005). V ertical varia-
tion in resistivity was obtained by conducting vertical
electrical soundings (VES) in the area at 24 locations
(Fig. 5) using Schlumberger electrode configuration and
AB/2 up to 100 m. In the Schlumberger configuration,
the potential and current electrodes are arranged in a
straight line, where potential electrode spacing is
smaller than the current electrodes. Mid point of current
electrodes (AB) and potential electrodes (MN) coincide.
The formula used to calculate the apparent resistivity
(ρa) is as follows:
?a¼
AB=2
ðÞ2? MN=2
MN
ðÞ2
?pDV
I
where,
AB
MN
I
V
Current electrode spacing (in meters)
Potential electrode spacing (in meters)
Current (in amps)
V oltage (in volts)
There is a large difference between the spacing of AB
and MN (i.e. AB >>MN) but, for good results, the
spacing difference must be AB ≥ 5MN
The spacing factor for four electrodes situated on
the land surface was obtained, and the method is
described briefly as follows. If, at the surface of the
ground, an electric current I is introduced by means of
two point electrodes A and B, when the current flows
from A to B, potential at any point P on the surface is
given by
Vp ¼ 1=2ps 1=r1 ? 1=r2
where r1 and r2 are distances of the point P from A and
B, respectively, and σ is the conductivity of the medium
which is the reciprocal of the resistivity. Potential differ-
ence between two points P and Q, which are at distances
r1, r2 and R1, R2 respectively from the electrodes A and
B is given by
ðÞ
VP? VQ¼ V ¼ 1=2ps 1=r1 ? 1=r2 ? 1= R1 þ 1= R2
ðÞ
Hence the resistivity is
? ¼ 1=? ¼ 2pV=I 1= 1=r1 ? 1=r2 ? 1=R1 þ 1=R2
ðÞ½?
Table 2 Weight and ranking of the thematic layers
Theme Weight Feature
Class
Rank
Geomorphology (type of
land
form and its aerial extent)
2 Alluvial plain
V alley fills
Pediplain
Buried pediplain
Pediments
Structural hills
Denudational hills
Residual hills
V ery gentle slope
Gentle slope
Moderately steep
slope
V ery steep slope
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
10
9
8
Slope (classes based
on degrees)
1
7
Fig. 5
Groundwater prospect zones of the Morar River Basin
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Fig. 6a–g Iso-apparent resistivity sections through various VES locations. (AO depth below ground in meters and Ωm apparent resistivity)
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Thus, the factor 2p= 1= r1 ? 1= r2 ? 1=R1 þ 1=R2
represents the spacing factor. This factor holds good
for all dispositions of the current and potential electro-
des and does not change with an interchange of current
and potential electrodes. Difference in disposition of
current and potential electrodes gives rise to the various
exploration techniques in the resistivity method of
prospecting.
Geoelectrical cross-sections along chosen profiles
passing through different VES locations were prepared
to understand the aquifer depth and geometry. The iso-
apparent resistivity sections (Fig. 6a–g) indicate the
presence of multilayered inhomogeneous formation with
intermittent presence of wedge to oval shaped shallow
aquifer bodies (blue to black coloured zones). Almost
all low resistivity zones (<20 Ohm-m and comprising
VES points Nos. r6, r7, r8, r9, r10, r12, r15; Fig. 6a, b,
c and e) coincide well with the excellent groundwater
prospect zones on the integrated map and vice versa. A
deeper low resistivity zone is perceived at point r 20
(Fig. 6g). This point lies on the fringes of good to
moderate groundwater prospect zones. Similarly, points
r2, r3, r4 and r5 lie in good prospect zones. All these
points lie on the fringes of low resistivity areas
(excellent prospect zones) and comprise shallower
aquifers. V arious curve types obtained at these VES
points (Table 3) supplement the inferences drawn. For
example, apparent resistivities at points r21 and r24
(Fig. 6b and d) are shown high, and both these points
lie in excellent prospects zone. This mismatch is
comprehensible as there is no ground control point
beyond r21 and r24 in parts b, c and d of Fig. 6.
Furthermore, curve types at these points (H-type)
½?
support excellent prospects. Similarly, at r23 the curve
type is AK which represents poor groundwater pros-
pects—geomorphologically, this zone is characterized
by denudational hills composed of shales/sandstones
which has poor groundwater prospects.
The groundwater prospect zones inferred (Fig. 5) were
validated with the borehole/well yield data (Central
Groundwater Board, Ministry of Water Resource, Govern-
ment of India, unpublished report, 2003) in these areas.
Field data revealed that the excellent prospect zones were
located in the alluvial plains. Borehole/well yield data
were collected from the villages Rithora Kalan, Sohli,
Bahadurpur, Dungutina, Lakshmangarh, Baretha, Padam-
pur, Rora (for locations, see Table 3 and Fig. 5), which
restrain to alluvial plains. The boreholes/wells yielded
3,000–3,500 L/h in these zones. Good groundwater
prospect zones are found in the villages Singhwani,
Girongi, Malanpur, Kheriya Mirdha where yields of
800–900 L/h were recorded. Moderate zones comprising
University campus, Gwalior, Mohanpur and Pintopark
yielded 600–700 L/h, whereas the locations Maharajpur
and Londra under the poor zones had a yielding capacity
varying from 300 to 400 L/h.
There are limitations to the procedure. It is noted that
the iso-apparent resistivity sections (Fig. 6) show the
‘computed’ or ‘interpolated’ groundwater conditions
between two measured VES stations distantly apart. The
geologic conditions may differ in between, particularly in
an area with varied lithology, as in the present study.
Furthermore, topographical changes and near-surface
inhomogenities can mask the effects of deeper variations.
Limitations in the selection of VES stations because of
field constraints may also modify the inferences.
Table 3 Resistivity values and thicknesses of different layers at all VES locations in the Morar River basin (Zohdy et al. 1974)
Location name VES. NoTrue resistivity of individual layers (Ohm-m)
ρ1
ρ2
ρ3
22.611.450.1
21.70.92611.4
11.31385.7
2.3615.43,989
28.4 4.913.9
11.36.54103
28.313.90521.57
9.2449.72.09
5.7494.315.3
16.42.1415.9
21.30.79938.8
1.69 7.23 32.7
3.7634212.3
9.42 1253.32
15.65 39.3710.33
16.738.26 53.6
30.81 64.7212.78
9.94 34 14
34.576.24.77
5.7523.29.14
129 22.8361
42.6 14.7 128
22.3113179
56.824.6235
Thickness of individual layers (m)
h1
h2
1.622.6
0.6 0.342
2.3620.5
0.53518.8
0.3194.55
3.5717.4
2.9161.4
1.590.978
2.150.497
0.593 1.51
2.271.29
0.5336.16
1.08 1.06
1.051.8
0.89190.7653
1.9397.429
2.2691.994
0.1495.33
1.171.83
0.1474.86
8.236.05
2.52 6.77
0.018.92
1.1611.2
Curve type
ρ4
ρ5
h3
h4
Rithora Kalan
Singhwani
Malanpur
Malanpur
Girongi
Sohli
Bahadurpur
Dung Gutina
Lakshamgarh
Baretha
Kheriya Mirdha
Suron
Pintopark
Maharajpura
Padampur
Mohanpur
D.D. Nagar
Thatipur
IITTM campus
University Campus
Jhansi Road
Sikrodi
Londra
Rora
r1
r2
r3
r4
r5
r6
r7
r8
r9
r10
r11
r12
r13
r14
r15
r16
r17
r18
r19
r20
r21
r22
r23
r24
H
HA
A
A
QH
H
HKH
KHK
KH
QH
HKH
AKH
K
KH
KHK
HA
KHK
KH
KHK
K
H
H
AK
H
104 27.3
1,49336.9
6.536
26.6
528
299
1.13
1.14
540
4,196
21.46
0.942
47.9
108
3.3
4.5
25.74
37.7
544
545
9.46
10.5
282
3.274
5672
80.33
11401
91.5
3.82
6.027
51.38
6.47
5.29
3.98
18410.3
1,46080.72
0.125.95
4,334 103
Hydrogeology JournalDOI 10.1007/s10040-011-0758-6
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Page 11

Conclusions
In view of the depleting conditions of water resources and
increasing demands of water for meeting the requirements
of the rapidly growing population, as well as the problems
that are expected to arise in the future, a holistic, well-
planned long-term strategy is needed for sustainable-
groundwater-resource assessment and management. The
present study brings out the close relationship among the
geologic, geomorphic and geoelectrical parameters of
groundwater. The study accomplished this with GIS tools
and techniques, and has demonstrated the capabilities of
remote sensing and geoelectrical data for demarcation of
groundwater prospect zones, especially in a diverse
geological and geomorphological setup. The methodology
formulated in the study can be used as a rapid assessment
tool in groundwater exploration, particularly in areas
where baseline data are nonexistent. It is a fast, cost
effective and economical way of exploration based on
groundwater prospect mapping and it may be useful in
predictive groundwater-resource development and man-
agement.
Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to the Head of the
School of Studies in Earth Science, Jiwaji University, Gwalior M.P .
and the Principal of Govt. Science College, Gwalior for providing
necessary facilities. P .K. is thankful to Shri A.N. Singh, Chairman,
and Dr. R.P . Singh, Director of Maulana Azad National Institute of
Technology, Bhopal, for constant encouragement. Thanks are also
due to the anonymous reviewers and Technical Editorial Advisor for
their many helpful suggestions.
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