Trends in modernizing the fundamental concept of ecosystem: self-repairing, self-cleaning, self-reforming, energy-saving, and labile biomachinery

Ostroumov S.A. Trends in modernizing the fundamental concept of ecosystem: self-repairing, self-cleaning, self-reforming, energy-saving, and labile biomachinery. - Ecological Studies, Hazards, Solutions, 2007, v. 12, p. 24-29.

(affiliation: Faculty of Biology, Moscow State University, Moscow 119991)

ABSTRACT:
There are various concepts of ecosystem (e.g., Tansley, 1935; Alimov, 2000; Wetzel, 2001). Some authors consider an ecosystem to be a kind of organism or superorganism. Other authors consider it as a mechanism with a structure formed by a certain pattern of transfer of energy and matter.
There are many types of ecosystems and possibly all of the various types of definition and vision are adequate in one or another specific situation. Recently, we published our own definition of an ecosystem that seems to be useful in some situations (Ostroumov, 2002c).
The goal of this paper is to re-visit the formulations of some of the fundamental concepts underlying the functional organization of ecosystems. As our experience was mainly with aquatic organisms, we plan to use mainly the empirical data of studies of aquatic ecosystems and organisms. We hope that some part of our analysis will be applicable to both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Our analysis leads to the following vision of an ecosystem that seems to be applicable to some natural and artificial aquatic ecosystems: we propose to see some of the aquatic ecosystems as self-repairing, self-cleaning, self-reshaping, energy-saving, and labile biomachinery.
To support and substantiate this view, we locate some evidence from both our studies and the literature (see Table 1 in the article). The following issues were analyzed in the article:
1. Superorganism, mechanism or biomachinery?
2. Rigid structure or labile entity? We consider the aquatic ecosystem as a labile entity because…< see in the full text of the paper>
3. Energy wasting or energy saving? We consider the aquatic ecosystem as an energy-saving entity because…< see in the full text of the paper>
4. Needing an external repair shop or self-repairing? The aquatic ecosystem as a self-repairing, self-cleaning entity because…< see in the full text of the paper>
5. Paradox of identity: constancy of self-reforming? The aquatic ecosystem as a self-reforming, self-reshaping entity because…< see in the full text of the paper>
6. Sum of elements or hi-technology?
7. A new concept of competitive symbiosis.
8. Entropy and ecological repair. We studied effects of some chemicals on … < see in the full text of the paper> We consider ecological repair in aquatic ecosystems as another example of anti-entropy processes in life systems.
9. Individual elements of ecosystems: independent species or groups of species? We developed a new concept of groups of species that we call ecological clusters (Ostroumov, 2004b). Ecological clusters are…< see in the full text of the paper>
The article contribute to the evolution of ecology that is on the verge of revolution in conceptual terms, which is of importance in order to understand and use ecosystem services.

Key words: innovations in ecology, ecosystem, fundamental concepts, ecotechnology, biosphere, ecological clusters, entropy, symbiosis, biomachinery, energy-saving, ecological repair, theoretical biology and ecology, superorganism, ecosystem services, ecological processes, V.I.Vernadsky, marine bivalves, Mytilus edulis, M. galloprovincialis ,

The full text of the article:
TRENDS IN MODERNIZING THE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEM: SELF-REPAIRING, SELF-CLEANING, SELF-REFORMING, ENERGY-SAVING, AND LABILE BIOMACHINERY
S.A.Ostroumov
Department of Hydrobiology, Faculty of Biology, Moscow State University, Moscow 119991

[epigraph:
Truth in science can be defined as the working hypothesis best suited to open the way to the next better one.
Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989; Nobel Prize,1973)]

1. Introduction. There are various concepts of ecosystem (e.g., Tansley, 1935; Alimov, 2000; Wetzel, 2001). Some authors consider an ecosystem to be a kind of organism or superorganism. Other authors consider it as a mechanism with a structure formed by a certain pattern of transfer of energy and matter.
We admit that there are many types of ecosystems and possibly all of the various types of definition and vision are adequate in one or another specific situation. Recently, we published our own definition of an ecosystem that seems to be useful in some situations (Ostroumov, 2002c).
The goal of this paper is to re-visit the formulations of some of the fundamental concepts underlying the functional organization of ecosystems. As our experience was mainly with aquatic organisms, we plan to use mainly the empirical data of studies of aquatic ecosystems and organisms. We hope that some part of our analysis will be applicable to both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Our analysis leads to the following vision of an ecosystem that seems to be applicable to some natural and artificial aquatic ecosystems: we propose to see some of the aquatic ecosystems as self-repairing, self-cleaning, self-reshaping, energy-saving, and labile biomachinery.
To support and substantiate this view, we locate some evidence from both our studies and the literature (see Table 1).
2. Superorganism, mechanism or biomachinery? We consider the aquatic ecosystem as a piece of biomachinery (in some situations, a kind of biomachine) because it is an entity that includes the two types of components, biological organisms and abiotic components. Both types of components are actively interacting with each other, and many ecological processes are an integration of both. Examples of the integration were given in many publications, including our works on how biological, chemical and physical factors interact towards water purification (Ostroumov 1998, 2001a, 2002b). The concept of 'biomachinery' is partly in accord with the school of thought of V.I.Vernadsky. Vernadsky coined a new term, the Russian adjective 'biokosny' – e.g., 'biokosny object of nature'. This term is composed of two elements - 'bio' and 'kosny' , the latter is an old Russian word, near to the English word 'inert' (but an important linguistic and conceptual difference is the fact that 'inert' is the sum of the negative prefix and some root; the Russian 'kosny' is a monolithic word without any prefixes). The term invented by Vernadsky describes and emphasizes so deep an integration of biological and abiological components (and also the fundamental difference of the both types of objects) that it is almost impossible to translate this word by a single English word without additional comment (Vernadsky, 2001). The word 'biomachinery' is rich in connotations, including those relevant to our attempts to use everything in our economic interests. Many ecosystems are artificial or semi-artificial (agriculture, aquaculture, silviculture) which is in further accord with the connotations of the word 'biomachinery'. Also important are the connotations that make us think of the problems of repair, energy supply and regulation (all of them are included in the discussion given below).
3. Rigid structure or labile entity? We consider the aquatic ecosystem as a labile entity because it is changeable during the seasons of the year and from year to year. E.g., the abundances of many species of plankton change by orders of magnitude from spring to autumn. Generally speaking, in ecology, various types of successions were described.
Moreover, we discovered new facts demonstrating a high lability of important ecological processes under the effect of man-made impacts, such as chemical pollutants. Our experimental studies gave convincing evidence of the ability of chemical pollutants (surfactants) to inhibit filtration rates of aquatic bivalves, including the marine bivalves Mytilus edulis, M. galloprovincialis (Ostroumov, 2001a, 2002a) as well as freshwater bivalves (Unio sp., Ostroumov 2001b).
4. Energy wasting or energy saving? We consider the aquatic ecosystem as an energy-saving entity because it uses frugally in a well-balanced way all thinkable and available types of energy sources to maintain its functioning (except for nuclear devices): light (both visible and UV-radiation), oxidation of organic matter, and other oxidoreductions. Allochtonous organic matter is also utilized by oxidation. One of the most important functions – maintaining water quality (in other words, water self-purification) is fed by energy from all of those sources. A significant part of the energy is extracted from the very compounds that are to be destroyed - the dissolved organic matter - as well as from organic particles and organic solid material (such as parts of higher plants that enter the aquatic ecosystem).
5. Needing an external repair shop or self-repairing? The aquatic ecosystem as a self-repairing, self-cleaning entity because there are at least 19-20 ecological processes that lead to water purification and maintenance of a certain level of cleanliness of the water (maintenance of and repairing water quality) (Ostroumov, 2001a,b). Using the language of metaphor, those processes include the functional analogs of filters, pumps and mills. The filters filter out various contaminants from water (see Ostroumov 1998). The pumps pump them out so that the contaminants are being removed and exported from water to other compartments (sediments, air, or adjusting ecosystems). The mills destroy the molecules of pollutants. Many facts of aquatic ecology and limnology that are in essence in support of our concept of pumps and mills were given in (Wetzel, 2001).
6. Paradox of identity: constancy of self-reforming? The aquatic ecosystem as a self-reforming, self-reshaping entity because very often it maintains its functioning at the expense of changing its structure: e.g., the function of primary productivity is carried out by a set of plant species that changes significantly from spring to autumn (see some data on plankton in: Wetzel, 2001). Less visible, but also common is the reverse situation when the ecosystem maintains its structure at the expense of sacrificing its functioning: e.g., some crustaceans survive the winter by going into a dormant phase in which they do not exercise any activity as predators, consumers or water filters. This ability and practice, ever-changing, sometimes makes it difficult to see clearly the identity of the given ecosystem.

Table 1. Examples illustrating new trends and concepts in the author's vision of functional organization of an aquatic ecosystem as self-repairing, self-cleaning, energy-saving, self-reforming, labile biomachinery based on extended competitive symbiosis
No Key word that characterize the modern concept of ecosystem Conceptual principles and innovations Examples of new evidence in support or in criticism
1 Biomachinery In functional organization of ecosystems, both biotic and abiotic factors and processes are merged Tansley, 1935; Alimov, 2000; Wetzel, 2001
2 Labile Many environmental factors change the key processes in ecosystems Pollutants (surfactants and some others) inhibit the filtration rate of filter-feeders (Ostroumov, 1998, 2001a,b; 2002a)
3 Energy-saving The processes of matter/element migration in the ecosystem are driven by solar energy, by oxidation of autochthonous and allochthonous organic matter, by other oxidoreductions; using the energy sources is often coupled with self-purification of the water in the ecosystem Examples of solar energy-driven processes: photosynthetic production of oxygen; photolysis of organic molecules.
Examples of processes connected with oxidation of autochthonous organic matter: bacterial oxidation of algal metabolites.
Examples of processes connected with oxidation of allochthonous organic matter: bacterial and fungal oxidation
4 Self-repairing, self-cleaning Ecosystem performs a number of processes leading to water purification The list of the processes see in: Hydrobiologia, 2002, 469: 203-204
5 Self-reforming Along the time axis, there are many changes in the species composition, species abundances, and other structural parameters of the ecosystem accompanied with (sometimes smaller) variations in the rates of processes Examples of seasonal changes: Wetzel, 2001.

Examples of year-by-year variations: Alimov, 2000, Chapter 2
6 Extended competitive symbiosis
Organisms involved in water purification serve a useful function to other species; the benefits are bilateral DAN 2002 382: 138-141 (biodiversity and water quality);
DAN 2004 396: 136-141 (water self-purification)

7. Sum of elements or hi-technology? In addition to what is said above, it is worth mentioning that the stability and reliability of an aquatic ecosystem is connected – in full accord with principles of engineering and high technology – with the multiple duplication and parallelism of the most important functions. E.g., the function of water purification is duplicated by plankton and benthos operating in a parallel way. Both groups of organisms fulfill all of the biological functions that participate in water purification (Ostroumov, 2001a). For example, water filtering is performed by both plankton (zooplankton) and benthos (bivalves). In plankton, water filtering is further duplicated as being performed by both crustaceans (e.g., Cladocera) and rotifers. So important a function as the removal of dissolved organic matter from the water is duplicated by virtually all groups of aquatic organisms, as even phototrophic algae and cyanobacteria in reality are mixotrophs who are capable of heterotrophy.
Moreover, we see in ecosystems some significant additional elements of what we call high technology. It is the multi-level regulation of processes in ecosystems with many feed-backs. E.g., the ca. 19-20 processes of water purification are under a strong regulation exercised by the trophic web. The regulation includes both top-down and bottom-up control. Besides the regulation by trophic interactions, there is a multiple regulation via chemical signals (Ostroumov, 1986). In ecosystems, we can even see some analogs of computers that regulate high-technological equipment: the sets of neurons that compose the ganglia and brains of aquatic organisms. If we consider the behavior of aquatic animals in terms of optimizing the resource use, we can compare the patterns of behavior of aquatic animals with some aspects of computer calculating in high-technology engineering.
8. A new concept of competitive symbiosis. Many organisms are involved in water self-purification. Filter-feeders filter out of water much more seston than they need as food for their metabolism. With pellets they excrete 20-80% of the material that they fitered out of water. The organic matter of the excreted material serves an important role in ecosystem. Hence, filter-feeders perform important function that benefit the entire ecosystem and many other organisms of the ecosystem. In broad terms, the filter-feeders are part of a broad symbiotic network that involves many species of the ecosystem. The same is applicable not only to filter-feeders but also to all organisms involved in water self-purification in the aquatic ecosystem. Many ecological processes occur on competitive basis. The competitive character is the essence of biological interactions. Interestingly, the combination of many competitive biological and chemical processes lead to forming an extended mutually profitable symbiosis of many species of aquatic ecosystem.
9. Entropy and ecological repair. We studied effects of some chemicals on one of processes (water filtration by filter-feeders) that contribute to water self-purification (Ostroumov, see, e.g., publications in 2003-2006). The new experimental data led us to formulation of a new concept of ecological repair (Ostroumov, 2004d, 2006a). We consider ecological repair in aquatic ecosystems as another example of anti-entropy processes in life systems.
10. Individual elements of ecosystems: independent species or groups of species? We developed a new concept of groups of species that we call ecological clusters (Ostroumov, 2004b). Ecological clusters are groups of two or more species which depend on each other in their survival. In some cases it seems that it is ecological clusters that are the true elements of ecological systems.
11.Conclusions. Ecosystems still surprise us in the conceptual richness of their functioning and organization. On the practical side, we see more and more deep and imperative reasons why almost all organisms that constitute an aquatic ecosystem are useful and essential for the system survival. In the best interests of sustainable use of the resources and useful things that we get out of aquatic ecosystems, we see new reasons for protecting the biodiversity. We have an instinct for caring about useful pieces of equipment and machinery so that the author has some hope that using the word 'biomachinery' will strike the inner chord of our soul and make us exercise more care of the most useful type of machinery we possess, and to which we all belong.
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