There are many Mediterranean diets.

Abstract

Interest in Mediterranean diet began 30 years ago, when Ancel Keys published the results of the famous Seven Countries Study, Since 1945, almost 1.3 million people have come to Australia from Mediterranean countries as new settlers. There are 18 countries with coasts on the Mediterranean sea: Spain, southern France, Italy, Malta, Croatia, Bosnia, Albania, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, Libya, Malta, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. This study from which this report derives aims to investigate the influence of the food habits of immigrants from Mediterranean countries on Australian food intake. Here we look at the 'traditional' food habits of the above Mediterranean countries as told by 102 people we interviewed in Sydney, who came from 18 Mediterranean countries to Sydney. Most of the informants were women, their age ranged from 35 to 55 years. The interview was open-ended and held in the informant's home. It usually lasted around 1 1/2 hours. The interview had three parts. Personal information was obtained, questions relating to the food habits of these people back in their original Mediterranean countries and how their food intake and habits have changed in Australia were also asked. From the interviews, we have obtained a broad picture of 'traditional' food habits in different Mediterranean countries. The interview data was checked with books of recipes for the different countries. While there were similarities between the countries, there are also important differences in the food habits of the Mediterranean countries. Neighbouring countries' food habits are closer than those on opposite sides of the Mediterranean Sea. We suggest that these food habits can be put into four groups. The data here refer to food habits in Mediterranean countries 20 or 30 years ago, as they were recovering from the Second World War. There is no single ideal Mediterranean diet. Nutritionists who use the concept should qualify the individual country and the time in history of their model Mediterranean diet.

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2
Introduction
‘The Mediterranean diet’ has been widely recommended for
a healthy lifestyle since Ancel Keys first used the term in
1975.1,2The essential concept is that this is not a set of
changes to our usual diet dictated by scientific experiments.
It is a set of food habits and recipes enjoyed traditionally by
the ordinary people of Mediterranean countries who have
been found to have lower rates of coronary and other chronic
diseases than the most scientifically developed countries, for
example, USA, UK and Germany.3
If one takes a more than superficial interest in the
Mediterranean diet, questions arise of time and place. There
are at present 18 countries with coasts on the Mediterranean
Sea. In clockwise order from Gibraltar they are Spain, France,
Italy, Croatia, Bosnia, Albania, Greece, Turkey, Syria,
Lebanon, Israel, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco,
plus the island countries Malta and Cyprus. Some of the
larger of these countries also have distinct regional differ-
ences, food habits and recipes.
Descriptions of the Mediterranean diet can be consulted.
For Ancel Keys in the 1950s it included ‘home made mine-
strone . . . pasta in endless variety . . . served with tomato
sauce and a sprinkle of cheese, only occasionally enriched
with some bits of meat or served with a little local sea-
food . . . a hearty dish of beans and short lengths of maca-
roni . . . lots of bread never more than a few hours from the
oven and never served with any kind of spread; great quan-
tities of fresh vegetables, a modest portion of meat or fish
perhaps twice a week, wine of the type we used to call ‘Dago
red’ . . . always fresh fruit for dessert’.4
Later Keys cites ‘The heart of what we now consider the
Mediterranean diet is mainly vegetarian: pasta in many
forms, leaves sprinkled with olive oil, all kinds of vegetables
in season and often cheese, all finished off with fruit and
frequently washed down with wine . . . it is much lower in
meat and dairy products and there are some differences in
dessert. What we call pie is almost unknown, as are corn-
starch and steamed puddings. Cakes are mostly special types
for Christmas and Easter and fresh fruit is the standard
dessert’.5
For Trichopoulou et al.6studying older people in Greek
villages, the eight characteristics of the traditional Greek
diet are:
1. A high ratio of monounsaturated to saturated fat.
2. Moderate alcohol consumption.
3. High consumption of legumes.
4. High consumption of cereals (including bread).
5. High consumption of fruits.
6. High consumption of vegetables.
7. Low consumption of meat and meat products.
8. Low consumption of milk and dairy products.
To use this system it needs reference amounts for each of
the eight food groups per day: high relative to . . . and low
relative to what comparison diet? Average diets in north
Asia Pacific J Clin Nutr (2001) 10(1): 2–9
Original Article
There are many Mediterranean diets
Ann Noah MSc and Arthur Stewart Truswell MD, DSc
Human Nutrition Unit, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
Interest in Mediterranean diet began 30 years ago, when Ancel Keys published the results of the famous Seven
Countries Study. Since 1945, almost 1.3 million people have come to Australia from Mediterranean countries as
new settlers. There are 18 countries with coasts on the Mediterranean sea: Spain, southern France, Italy, Malta,
Croatia, Bosnia, Albania, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, Libya, Malta, Tunisia, Algeria and
Morocco. This study from which this report derives aims to investigate the influence of the food habits of
immigrants from Mediterranean countries on Australian food intake. Here we look at the ‘traditional’ food
habits of the above Mediterranean countries as told by 102 people we interviewed in Sydney, who came from
18 Mediterranean countries to Sydney. Most of the informants were women, their age ranged from 35 to
55 years. The interview was open-ended and held in the informant’s home. It usually lasted around 11/2 hours.
The interview had three parts. Personal information was obtained, questions relating to the food habits of these
people back in their original Mediterranean countries and how their food intake and habits have changed in
Australia were also asked. From the interviews, we have obtained a broad picture of ‘traditional’ food habits in
different Mediterranean countries. The interview data was checked with books of recipes for the different
countries. While there were similarities between the countries, there are also important differences in the food
habits of the Mediterranean countries. Neighbouring countries’ food habits are closer than those on opposite
sides of the Mediterranean Sea. We suggest that these food habits can be put into four groups. The data here
refer to food habits in Mediterranean countries 20 or 30 years ago, as they were recovering from the Second
World War. There is no single ideal Mediterranean diet. Nutritionists who use the concept should qualify the
individual country and the time in history of their model Mediterranean diet.
Key words: different Mediterranean diets, food habits, Mediterranean diet, Sydney.
Correspondence address: Ann Noah, Human Nutrition Unit,
University of Sydney, NSW 2006,Australia.
Tel: 61 2 9351 3726; Fax: 61 2 9351 6027
Email: annnoah@ozemail.com.au
Accepted 22 August 2000

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Many Mediterranean diets
3
Europe have been used. The Oldways, Preservation and
Exchange Trust has proposed a Mediterranean diet pyramid.7
Unlike the standard (black background) USDA pyramid,
which shows only five food groups, the Mediterranean pyra-
mid’s triangular area is divided up for 11 different food
groups. Their areas, presumably representing relative grams
per day (in cm2), are: bread, pasta, rice, couscous, polenta,
bulgar 33; vegetables 25; beans, other legumes and nuts 20;
fruits 16; olive oil and olives 10; cheese, yoghurt and other
dairy 9; fish 5; poultry and eggs 3; sweets 1; lean red meat 1.
Wine in moderation is shown alongside.
These amounts differ from a pattern of 1960 southern Ital-
ian (Nicotera) food intake that Fidanza suggested as a ‘real ref-
erence Mediterranean Italian diet’ (g/head/day, all ages, men
and women): cereals 398, vegetables 286, legumes 41, fruit 83,
fish 32, edible fats (olive oil) 38, meat 34, eggs 12, cheese 16,
milk (mL) 30, sugar products 22, wine (mL) 119.8Several of
the ratios here are quite different from the Oldways pyramid.
From France,Vialettes observed that in the classic Mediter-
ranean world the diet is based on three plants: wheat, the olive
and vine. In the south the palm tree replaces the olive, and
the characteristic consumption of wine occurs in the western
Mediterranean countries. He also suggests that garlic and
onions may have health benefits at customary intake.9
The recorded national amounts of the food groups con-
sumed in the individual Mediterranean countries in the early
1960s differed considerably.10,11
Cereals ranged twofold (Libya low, France high), fruits
fourfold (Morocco low to Turkey high), vegetables fourfold
(Libya low to Spain high), meats about fivefold (from Egypt
to France), olive oil (from essentially zero in Egypt, Malta
and Israel to 18% of dietary energy in Greece).
Between the early 1960s and the recent years there have
been great changes in food consumption patterns in all the
Mediterranean countries.4,8,11–13
Ferro-Luzzi concluded ‘describing the Mediterranean diet, was
supposed to be a quite easy task, has turned out to be a
demanding and almost impossible enterprise since data are
lacking, incomplete or too aggregated. It appears that currently
there is insufficient material to give a proper definition of what
the Mediterranean diet is or was in terms of well defined
chemical compounds or even in terms of foods. We do not
think we have succeeded in characterizing the Mediterranean
diet in a satisfactory way. The closest we feel that one can
come in terms of a definition . . . is to assume that it resembles
the diet eaten in south Italy in the early 1960s, as described by
the Euratom Study . . . The all embracing term ‘Mediterranean
diet’ should not be used in scientific literature until its
composition, both in foods, nutrients and non-nutrients is more
clearly defined and the metabolic basis of its health-promoting
virtues has been better explained’.11
As part of a study of the influence of the food habits of
immigrants from Mediterranean countries on contemporary
Australian food consumption patterns, we have interviewed
people (mostly women), now living in Sydney who lived in
one of the Mediterranean countries when they were younger
and recalled what they used to eat and drink in their original
countries.
Methods
People were interviewed who came from Spain, southern
France, Italy, Malta, Croatia, Bosnia, Albania, Greece,
Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia,Alge-
ria and Morocco.
A total of 102 people have been interviewed. Local phone
books were used to identify the location of each community
service and clubs in Sydney. From here, names of good
informants were contacted.
The age of the informants was from 35 to 55 years old.
Most of the informants were women, because food prepara-
tion and cooking is mainly the responsibility of women in
Mediterranean countries. All the informants were born and
had grown up in a Mediterranean country.
Up to the present, adequate numbers have not been inter-
viewed from Syria, Palestine, Israel, Algeria, Libya and
Tunisia.
The interview was open-ended, not structured and held
in the informants’ homes. It was not limited by time and
usually lasted around 11/2 hours. Some repeat visits were
made.
Visiting the informants’ homes gave the opportunity to
observe some items, preparation and cooking methods that
were used, also the way of serving their dishes. The interview
had three parts, including asking personal information: edu-
cation level, where they lived in their original Mediterranean
country, involvement in food shopping and preparation and
when they came to Australia. The second part considered the
original food habits of these Mediterranean people back in
their original country. They were asked about their staple
foods and dishes, the food items or dishes as centrepiece and
their trimmings or side dishes. The third part dealt with their
food habits in Australia to find out what changes they had
made in foods consumed and methods of preparation.
Information was recorded in a computer notebook (Acer
Extensa 503T; Acer, Homebush Bay, Australia).
Supplementary information has been sought in cookery
books from and about the different Mediterranean countries.
Some of the informants lent copies of cookbooks, from
which copies were made.
Results
From the interviews, we found that food consumption varied
not only between different Mediterranean countries, but also
within the same country.
These differences are related to several factors such as
culture, ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic status and the
climate of the country.
Tables were prepared for each country with 110 foods
and (dishes) in a standard order. Frequency of consumption
was expressed with simplified scoring as 0, + , + + or + + + .
Some countries different, some similar
It could be seen that there were large differences in food
consumption patterns between countries that are far apart,
e.g., Italy and Morocco, and there were similarities of food
habits between some neighbouring countries, for example,
Lebanon and Turkey (Table 1).
Two countries with different food habits: Italy and
Morocco
Most of the Italian cereal and cereal products came from
white flour, bread and pasta. In Morocco, the cereal products
were the white flour in bread and pastry, wholemeal bread

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A Noah and AS Truswell4
Table 1. Frequency of the food consumption (days/week)
Different dietsSimilar diets
Italy MoroccoLebanon Turkey
White flour
Wholemeal flour
White bread
+ + +
0
+ + +
Cylindincal loaf,
focaccia and rolls
+ + +
+ +
+ + +
Long stick
+ + +
0
+ + + , pitta +
(layered flat bread)
+ + +
0
+ + +
pide flat fermented
bread or simit crusty rings
smothered with sesame
seeds
0
+ , fried vermicelli or
ravioli
0
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
Wholemeal bread
Pasta
0
+ + + , various shapes
+ + + , kobez
0
0
+ , fried vermicelli
Couscous
Burghul
Rice
Potato
0
0
+ + , more in North
+ + , to make gnocchi
+ + +
0
+
+ + +
0
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
Butter+ , in North Italy + , smna
(clarified butter
for cooking)
+ + +
+ +
+ +
0
+ + , smna
(for cooking and
desserts)
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
0. + +
+ + Sana yag
(for cooking and desserts)
Buttermilk
Cheese
Yogurt
Margarine
0
+ + +
0
0. + +
+
+ + +
+ + +
0. + +
Allspice
Basil
Turmeric
+
+ + +
0
+ + +
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
0
0
+ + +
0
0
Broccoli
Cauliflower
Eggplant
Olive
Silverbeet
Tomato
Pumpkin
Vine leaf
Zucchini
Fresh broad beans
Fresh green beans
Fresh haricot bean
Dried broad beans
Dried lentils
Dried cannellini
Chickpeas
Dried haricot bean
+ +
+ +
+
+ + +
0
+ + +, fresh and peeled
+
0
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
0
+ +
+ +
+
0
0
+ +
+ +
+
+ + , fresh and paste
+ + +
0
+
+ +
0
+
+ +
+ +
0
+ + +
+ +
0
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + , peeled and fresh
0
+ + +
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+
+ + +
+ + +
+
+ + +
+ + +
0
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + , fresh and peeled
0
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+
+ +
+ + +
+
+ +
+ + +
Apples
Apricots and peaches
Cherries
Dates
Figs
+ +
+ +
+
0
+ +
+
+ +
0
+ + +
+ + + , fresh and dry
+ +
+ +
+ + +
0
+ + , fresh more
than dry
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
0
+ + , dried more
than fresh
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+
+ +
+ +
Grapes
Lemons
Oranges
Pears
Plums
Pomegranates
+ + +
+
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
Eggs + + + ++ + ++ + +
Suet
Olive oil
Other vegetable oil
+ + , pancetta
+ + +
+ , frying + olive oil
+ + +
+
+ + , frying only
+ + +
+ +
+ + , frying only
+ + +
+ +
+ + , frying only

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Many Mediterranean diets
5
and couscous, which is made of semolina. Rice has a major
role in north Italy, to make different kinds of risotto.
Regarding dairy products in Italy,butter is used in the north;
cheeses in the north and south of the country. In Morocco,
clarified butter is used and buttermilk which is consumed as a
drink. Cheese could be found in the Moroccan diet, but not as
a staple food. Also yogurt is consumed as a snack with honey.
Various vegetables are consumed in Italy, for example,
broccoli, capsicum, cauliflower, green beans, mushrooms
and zucchini. Fresh and dried herbs are used in Italian cook-
ing, such as basil. In Morocco, eggplant, potatoes, pumpkins
and green broad beans are the main vegetables, in couscous
or Tajines dishes. Turmeric and allspice are the usual flavour
ingredients.
Cannellini and haricot beans are the staple Italian pulses,
but in Morocco these are broad beans and chickpeas. Dates
are consumed greatly in Morocco, whole or mashed to fill
sweet pastry; however, not in Italy. Fresh and processed
meats have important roles in the Italian diet. Lamb is the
principal meat in Morocco. Italians use pinenuts mainly in
pesto; they have no role in Morocco.
Confectionery and sweets are different, in Italy almond
nougat, in Morocco, halva and Turkish delight. Beverages
differ, in Italy different kinds of coffee and wine, in Morocco,
green minted tea.
Two countries with similar food habits: Lebanon and
Turkey
The right side of Table 1 shows, by contrast, neighbouring
Lebanon and Turkey. Although the shapes and the names of
the bread in both countries are different, white flour is used
to make them. Occasionally, macaroni or spaghetti is con-
sumed, but fried vermicelli is used with rice more frequently.
Rice and/or burghul are consumed daily in both coun-
tries. The consumption of clarified butter is high to moder-
ate. Different kinds and flavours of cheeses play important
roles in both countries’ diets, also yogurt is consumed on its
own or in cooking dishes. In both countries, vegetable dishes
are prepared with olive oil and tomato purée, either without
meat and served cold or hot with meat. The main vegetables
in Lebanon and Turkey are eggplant, broad and green beans,
okra, zucchini and vine leaves. Consumption of dried pulses
is high to moderate in both countries. The same fruits are
eaten in Lebanon and Turkey. Fats are clarified butter, suet
and smaller amounts of olive oil.
Both countries consume the same meats. They have high
consumption of pistachio nuts, used in every kind of tradi-
tional sweet and the sesame seeds used to make the sesame
seed paste to produce tahini. Although the names of the
sweet dishes are different, the ingredients and preparation
methods are similar. For men and women, the traditional
beverage in both countries is Turkish style coffee. Men more
than women drink similar spirits (Arak) in both countries; in
Turkey this includes Moslems.
Food habits of Mediterranean countries fit (roughly) into
four groups
It is possible to fit the Mediterranean countries into four
groups of neighbouring countries whose food habits are
closer to each other than to the other countries:
Table 1. Continued
Different dietsSimilar diets
Italy MoroccoLebanonTurkey
Beef
Lamb
Pork & ham
Veal
Sausages
Fish & fish products
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ + +, various
+ + , especially in
south
+ +
+ + +
0
+
+
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
0
+
+
+ +
+ + +
+ +
0
+
0
+
Almond
Peanut
Pistachio
Pinenut
Sesame
+ + , biscuits and drink
+
0
+
+
+ + , desserts
+ + +
0
0
+ +
+ + + , desserts
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + + , desserts
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
Honey+ ++ + + + + ++ + +
Halva
Nougat
Turkish delight
Desserts
0
+ +
0
+ , biscuits,
Gelato, cakes
+
0
+ +
+ , biscuits, baklava,
compote
+ +
0
+ +
+ , baklava,
cheesy dessert,
mahmoul
+ +
0
+ +
+ , rice pudding,
baklava, biscuits
Coffee + + + , various+ + + , most is
Turkish
+ + + , green minted
0
+ + + , Turkish + + + , Turkish
Tea
Alcoholic beverages
+ +
+ + + , red and
white wine
+ +
+ + , arak
(anize-flavoured
spirits)
+ +
+ + , arak
(anize-flavoured
spirits)
0 = 0; + = 1,2 ; + + = 3,4,5; + + + = 6,7 serves per week.

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A Noah and AS Truswell6
1. Western group: Spain, France, Italy and Malta.
2. Adriatic group: Croatia, Bosnia and Albania.
3. Eastern group: Greece, Lebanon Cyprus, Turkey and
Egypt.
4. North African group: Libya, Algeria, Morocco and
Tunisia.
Their food patterns are summarised in Table 2.
The Western group, as seen in Table 2, consume bread,
rice, pasta and potatoes as staple food, with vegetables and
legumes. Wheat flour, mostly white, is used to make bread
and pastry for savoury or sweet dishes. Pasta consumption
ranges from high to moderate in this group, with the excep-
tion of Spain, where rice intake is higher than pasta. Rice con-
sumption is nevertheless high except in France. Polenta and
rice are major foods in north Italy. Potato plays an important
role in the Spanish diet. Olive oil is consumed mainly in Italy
and Spain, in cooking or salads or on bread, whereas France
consumes more butter than the rest of these countries (more
in the north) and Malta consumes vegetable oil (for example,
corn oil). Cheeses are the most important item among dairy
products. They have different names, shapes and taste. The
highest consumption of garlic is in Spain. Fresh tomatoes,
sun-dried, paste or purée are eaten daily. Pulses are most
eaten in Spain, least in Malta. Fresh fruits, dried, glazed and
jams are important. Game meat (rabbit and kid) consumption
is moderately high in these countries.
The Adriatic group has a high consumption of white
wheat flour as bread, also pitta, that is, soft dough stuffed
with meat or vegetables. Dairy product consumption is high
and takes different forms; butter and buttermilk in Bosnia;
ricotta and cottage cheese, sour cream and clotted cream are
eaten in similar amount in all three countries. Vegetables
are important foods, for example, eggplant and okra as stew;
potato as fried, in stew, baked, mashed and salad; pumpkin,
mainly to stuff pitta dough; cabbage and vine leaves are
filled with rice and minced meat or cabbage used as salad
with tomatoes and garlic. Dried pulses consumption is low.
Olive oil consumption is low (Albania, Bosnia) to moderate
(Croatia). Beef is the most important meat. Turkish coffee is
the daily drink for this group of countries. Wine is consumed
more in Croatia than the rest of these countries.
The Eastern group all consume white flour products.
Wholemeal flour and bread are consumed in Egypt. Rice is
used in savoury dishes either fried with butter, or in dessert
dishes. Clarified butter is used more than margarine. Cous-
cous in Egypt is a sweet dish and dissimilar to North African
couscous.
Potato is eaten in different dishes, not as a staple food.
Different sorts of cheeses play an important role in the east-
ern group’s diet. They consume vegetables called melokhia
(Chorchorus olitorius or Jews’ mallow), except in Turkey.
Also okra dishes could be the centrepiece during the summer
for all countries. Stuffed vine leaves are used in all these
countries. Taro is found only in Cyprus, Egypt and Greece. A
dried broad bean is the main ingredient in the daily Egyptian
cuisine to make mashed broad beans (foulmedames) or fried
minced broad beans (tahmia). Dill, parsley, coriander and
oregano are the essential herbs. Fresh and dried dates are
consumed in Egypt. Eggs and egg dishes are everyday ingre-
dients. Use of olive oil ranges greatly, it is very high in Greece
and negligible in Egypt, where the oil is from cottonseed.
Chicken is important in this group, and pigeon in Egypt.
Pastrami, which is preserved meat, is eaten throughout. Nuts
are prominent in savoury or sweet dishes in Lebanon and
Turkey. Sesame seeds are significant ingredients, in tahini or
halva. A sweet preserve made from green walnuts is only
found in Cyprus and Greece.
Turkish coffee is the daily drink for all countries, but
Egyptians drink more black tea than the rest of the eastern
countries. Egyptians do not drink alcohol as a rule; the other
countries drink spirits with different names.
The North African group eat bread made from whole-
meal flour and barley flour. Pasta intake is high in Libya
(Italian influence), however not in the other countries. Cous-
cous is eaten more than rice. Buttermilk is a common drink
in these countries. Cheese, clotted cream, margarine and sour
cream are not important. Fresh tomato and paste and fresh
hot pepper (chilli) are consumed. Potato, pumpkin and chick-
peas are major foods. Dates and date molasses are essential
for this group’s diet. Eggs and egg dishes could be con-
sumed twice a day. Olive oil consumption ranges from high
in Libya, moderate in Algeria and Tunisia to low in Morocco.
Also, suet from fat tail lamb is eaten daily. Lamb is the most
used meat in these countries. Preserved meat (kedid) is con-
sumed in large amount. Garlic has an essential place in
Algerian and Tunisian cuisine, fenugreek is mostly used in
Libya as flour or seeds. Allspice and turmeric are important
in all four countries’ cooking, and saffron is used more in
Morocco. Alcohol is discouraged and little used in these
countries. Tea drinking ranges from high in Libya and
Morocco to low in Algeria.
Discussion
Food and drink patterns reported here are based primarily on
our interviews with informants. They refer to food habits
about 20 or 30 years ago. We have checked the data with
books of recipes for the different countries including The
Foods and Wines of Spain, The Complete Spanish Cook
Book, French Provincial Cooking, The Top One Hundred
Dishes of Provence, The Complete Book of Italian Cooking,
Italian Cooking Class Cook Book, The Food of Italy, South-
ern Italian Cooking, Croatian Cuisine: The Modern Way,
Croatian Cook Book, Flavours of Greece, Traditional and
Modern Greek-Australian Cuisine, The Complete Middle
East Cook Book, The Turkish Cuisine, Traditional Turkish
Cooking, Allef Baa Al-tabek (in Arabic), Al-Matbek Al-
Lebnani (in Arabic), Step-by-Step Moroccan Cooking, Tra-
ditional Moroccan Cooking, The Best of Maltese Cooking,
What Food is That?.14–34
The data were also compared with available figures for
national food consumption in the 1960s.
We have found it difficult to describe a traditional Israeli
diet with our methods. This may be because Israel is, like
Australia, a country that people have been migrating into
rather than out. There must be different food habits between
the Jewish and Palestinian populations.
As can be seen from Tables 1 and 2, there are between
Mediterranean countries differences in ‘traditional’ con-
sumption of cereals, type of meat, amount of fish, types of
vegetables and of fruits, type and amount of fat or oil, type
of dessert and sugar consumption and amount and type of
alcohol consumption. Some of these differences are large.