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American Psychological Association

Publications in this journal

• Eye Movements to Audiovisual Scenes Reveal Expectations of a Just World.

  Authors: Mitchell J Callan, Heather J Ferguson, Markus Bindemann

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  When confronted with bad things happening to good people, observers often engage reactive strategies, such as victim derogation, to maintain a belief in a just world. Although such reasoning isWhen confronted with bad things happening to good people, observers often engage reactive strategies, such as victim derogation, to maintain a belief in a just world. Although such reasoning is usually made retrospectively, we investigated the extent to which knowledge of another person's good or bad behavior can also bias people's online expectations for subsequent good or bad outcomes. Using a fully crossed design, participants listened to auditory scenarios that varied in terms of whether the characters engaged in morally good or bad behavior while their eye movements were tracked around concurrent visual scenes depicting good and bad outcomes. We found that the good (bad) behavior of the characters influenced gaze preferences for good (bad) outcomes just prior to the actual outcomes being revealed. These findings suggest that beliefs about a person's moral worth encourage observers to foresee a preferred deserved outcome as the event unfolds. We include evidence to show that this effect cannot be explained in terms of affective priming or matching strategies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• Cross-Cultural Evidence That the Nonverbal Expression of Pride Is an Automatic Status Signal.

  Authors: Jessica L Tracy, Azim F Shariff, Wanying Zhao, Joseph Henrich

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  To test whether the pride expression is an implicit, reliably developing signal of high social status in humans, the authors conducted a series of experiments that measured implicit and explicitTo test whether the pride expression is an implicit, reliably developing signal of high social status in humans, the authors conducted a series of experiments that measured implicit and explicit cognitive associations between pride displays and high-status concepts in two culturally disparate populations-North American undergraduates and Fijian villagers living in a traditional, small-scale society. In both groups, pride displays produced strong implicit associations with high status, despite Fijian social norms discouraging overt displays of pride. Also in both groups, implicit and explicit associations between emotion expressions and status were dissociated; despite the cross-cultural implicit association between pride displays and high status, happy displays were, cross-culturally, the more powerful status indicator at an explicit level, and among Fijians, happy and pride displays were equally strongly implicitly associated with status. Finally, a cultural difference emerged: Fijians viewed happy displays as more deserving of high status than did North Americans, both implicitly and explicitly. Together, these findings suggest that the display and recognition of pride may be part of a suite of adaptations for negotiating status relationships, but that the high-status message of pride is largely communicated through implicit cognitive processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• Sex Differences in the Spatial Representation of Number.

  Authors: Rebecca Bull, Alexandra A Cleland, Thomas Mitchell

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  There is a large body of accumulated evidence from behavioral and neuroimaging studies regarding how and where in the brain we represent basic numerical information. A number of these studies haveThere is a large body of accumulated evidence from behavioral and neuroimaging studies regarding how and where in the brain we represent basic numerical information. A number of these studies have considered how numerical representations may differ between individuals according to their age or level of mathematical ability, but one issue rarely considered is whether the representational acuity or automaticity of using numerical representations differs between the sexes. We report 4 studies that suggest that male participants show a stronger influence of the spatial representation of number as revealed through the spatial numerical association of response codes (SNARC) effect, through the numerical distance effect (NDE), and through number-line estimations. Evidence for a sex difference in processing number was present for parity decisions (Experiment 1), color decisions (Experiment 2), number-line estimations (Experiment 3), and magnitude decisions (Experiment 4). We argue that this pattern of results reflects a sex difference in either the acuity of representation or reliance upon spatial representations of number, and that this difference may arise due to differences in the parietal lobes of men and women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• Fixation-Dependent Memory for Natural Scenes: An Experimental Test of Scanpath Theory.

  Authors: Tom Foulsham, Alan Kingstone

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  Many modern theories propose that perceptual information is represented by the sensorimotor activity elicited by the original stimulus. Scanpath theory (Noton & Stark, 1971) predicts that reinstatingMany modern theories propose that perceptual information is represented by the sensorimotor activity elicited by the original stimulus. Scanpath theory (Noton & Stark, 1971) predicts that reinstating a sequence of eye fixations will help an observer recognize a previously seen image. However, the only studies to investigate this are correlational ones based on calculating scanpath similarity. We therefore describe a series of 5 experiments that constrain the fixations during encoding or recognition of images in order to manipulate scanpath similarity. Participants encoded a set of images and later had to recognize those that they had seen. They spontaneously selected regions that they had fixated during encoding (Experiment 1), and this was a predictor of recognition accuracy. Yoking the parts of the image available at recognition to the encoded scanpath led to better memory performance than randomly selected image regions (Experiment 2), and this could not be explained by the spatial distribution of locations (Experiment 3). However, there was no recognition advantage for re-viewing one's own fixations versus someone else's (Experiment 4) or for retaining their serial order (Experiment 5). Therefore, although it is beneficial to look at encoded regions, there is no evidence that scanpaths are stored or that scanpath recapitulation is functional in scene memory. This paradigm provides a controlled way of studying the integration of scene content, spatial structure, and oculomotor signals, with consequences for the perception, representation, and retrieval of visual information. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• Lost Thoughts: Implicit Semantic Interference Impairs Reflective Access to Currently Active Information.

  Authors: Julie A Higgins, Marcia K Johnson

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  Why do we lose, or have trouble accessing, an idea that was in the focus of attention only a moment ago, especially in the absence of any apparent distraction? We tested the hypothesis that accessingWhy do we lose, or have trouble accessing, an idea that was in the focus of attention only a moment ago, especially in the absence of any apparent distraction? We tested the hypothesis that accessing a single item that is already active is affected by implicit interference (interference of which we have little or no awareness). We presented masked words that were semantically related or unrelated to a single visible target word that participants were cued to think of (refresh) a half second after its offset. Masked related but not unrelated words increased time to refresh the target but did not influence time required to read a target that was physically present. These findings provide novel evidence that an item in the focus of attention is subject to semantic interference. We suggest that such implicit semantic interference may contribute to the common "lost thought" experience and to cognitive deficits in populations in which refreshing is impaired. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• Anchoring and Adjustment During Social Inferences.

  Authors: Diana I Tamir, Jason P Mitchell

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  Simulation theories of social cognition suggest that people use their own mental states to understand those of others-particularly similar others. However, perceivers cannot rely solely onSimulation theories of social cognition suggest that people use their own mental states to understand those of others-particularly similar others. However, perceivers cannot rely solely on self-knowledge to understand another person; they must also correct for differences between the self and others. Here we investigated serial adjustment as a mechanism for correction from self-knowledge anchors during social inferences. In 3 studies, participants judged the attitudes of a similar or dissimilar person and reported their own attitudes. For each item, we calculated the discrepancy between responses for the self and other. The adjustment process unfolds serially, so to the extent that individuals indeed anchor on self-knowledge and then adjust away, trials with a large amount of self-other discrepancy should be associated with longer response times, whereas small self-other discrepancy should correspond to shorter response times. Analyses consistently revealed this positive linear relationship between reaction time and self-other discrepancy, evidence of anchoring-and-adjustment, but only during judgments of similar targets. These results suggest that perceivers mentalize about similar others using the cognitive process of anchoring-and-adjustment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• Reading Impairments in Schizophrenia Relate to Individual Differences in Phonological Processing and Oculomotor Control: Evidence From a Gaze-Contingent Moving Window Paradigm.

  Authors: Veronica Whitford, Gillian A O'Driscoll, Christopher C Pack, Ridha Joober, Ashok Malla, Debra Titone

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  Language and oculomotor disturbances are 2 of the best replicated findings in schizophrenia. However, few studies have examined skilled reading in schizophrenia (e.g., Arnott, Sali, Copland, 2011;Language and oculomotor disturbances are 2 of the best replicated findings in schizophrenia. However, few studies have examined skilled reading in schizophrenia (e.g., Arnott, Sali, Copland, 2011; Hayes & O'Grady, 2003; Revheim et al., 2006; E. O. Roberts et al., 2012), and none have examined the contribution of cognitive and motor processes that underlie reading performance. Thus, to evaluate the relationship of linguistic processes and oculomotor control to skilled reading in schizophrenia, 20 individuals with schizophrenia and 16 demographically matched controls were tested using a moving window paradigm (McConkie & Rayner, 1975). Linguistic skills supporting reading (phonological awareness) were assessed with the Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (R. K. Wagner, Torgesen, & Rashotte, 1999). Eye movements were assessed during reading tasks and during nonlinguistic tasks tapping basic oculomotor control (prosaccades, smooth pursuit) and executive functions (predictive saccades, antisaccades). Compared with controls, schizophrenia patients exhibited robust oculomotor markers of reading difficulty (e.g., reduced forward saccade amplitude) and were less affected by reductions in window size, indicative of reduced perceptual span. Reduced perceptual span in schizophrenia was associated with deficits in phonological processing and reduced saccade amplitudes. Executive functioning (antisaccade errors) was not related to perceptual span but was related to reading comprehension. These findings suggest that deficits in language, oculomotor control, and cognitive control contribute to skilled reading deficits in schizophrenia. Given that both language and oculomotor dysfunction precede illness onset, reading may provide a sensitive window onto cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia vulnerability and be an important target for cognitive remediation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• The Nature of Experience Determines Object Representations in the Visual System.

  Authors: Yetta K Wong, Jonathan R Folstein, Isabel Gauthier

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  Visual perceptual learning (PL) and perceptual expertise (PE) traditionally lead to different training effects and recruit different brain areas, but reasons for these differences are largelyVisual perceptual learning (PL) and perceptual expertise (PE) traditionally lead to different training effects and recruit different brain areas, but reasons for these differences are largely unknown. Here, we tested how the learning history influences visual object representations. Two groups were trained with tasks typically used in PL or PE studies, with the same novel objects, training duration and parafoveal stimulus presentation. We observed qualitatively different changes in the cortical representations of these objects following PL and PE training, replicating typical training effects in each field. These effects were also modulated by testing tasks, suggesting that experience interacts with attentional set and that the choice of testing tasks critically determines the pattern of training effects one can observe after a short-term visual training. Experience appears sufficient to account for prior differences in the neural locus of learning between PL and PE. The nature of the experience with an object's category can determine its representation in the visual system. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• Unconscious Evaluation of Faces on Social Dimensions.

  Authors: Lorna H Stewart, Sara Ajina, Spas Getov, Bahador Bahrami, Alexander Todorov, Geraint Rees

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  It has been proposed that two major axes, dominance and trustworthiness, characterize the social dimensions of face evaluation. Whether evaluation of faces on these social dimensions is restricted toIt has been proposed that two major axes, dominance and trustworthiness, characterize the social dimensions of face evaluation. Whether evaluation of faces on these social dimensions is restricted to conscious appraisal or happens at a preconscious level is unknown. Here we provide behavioral evidence that such preconscious evaluations exist and that they are likely to be interpretations arising from interactions between the face stimuli and observer-specific traits. Monocularly viewed faces that varied independently along two social dimensions of trust and dominance were rendered invisible by continuous flash suppression (CFS) when a flashing pattern was presented to the other eye. Participants pressed a button as soon as they saw the face emerge from suppression to indicate whether the previously hidden face was located slightly to the left or right of central fixation. Dominant and untrustworthy faces took significantly longer time to emerge (T2E) compared with neutral faces. A control experiment showed these findings could not reflect delayed motor responses to conscious faces. Finally, we showed that participants' self-reported propensity to trust was strongly predictive of untrust avoidance (i.e., difference in T2E for untrustworthy vs neutral faces) as well as dominance avoidance (i.e., difference in T2E for dominant vs neutral faces). Dominance avoidance was also correlated with submissive behavior. We suggest that such prolongation of suppression for threatening faces may result from a passive fear response, leading to slowed visual perception. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• Adaptive Reward Pursuit: How Effort Requirements Affect Unconscious Reward Responses and Conscious Reward Decisions.

  Authors: Erik Bijleveld, Ruud Custers, Henk Aarts

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  When in pursuit of rewards, humans weigh the value of potential rewards against the amount of effort that is required to attain them. Although previous research has generally conceptualized thisWhen in pursuit of rewards, humans weigh the value of potential rewards against the amount of effort that is required to attain them. Although previous research has generally conceptualized this process as a deliberate calculation, recent work suggests that rudimentary mechanisms-operating without conscious intervention-play an important role as well. In this article, we propose that humans can perform a basic integration of reward value and effort requirements without conscious awareness. Furthermore, we propose that conscious awareness of rewards allows for the use of more advanced functions in reward pursuit, which consider the specific course of action that leads to reward attainment. Using a monetary reward priming paradigm that allows us to dissect the performance effects of rewards (i.e., coins of different value) into conscious and unconscious components, we tested this proposal in 3 experiments. Overall, results indicate that people rely on a simple yet adaptive mechanism that unconsciously conserves effort during reward pursuit, because it makes people more reward sensitive whenever more effort is required of the body. Moreover, consciousness supports a more sophisticated mode of reward pursuit, via which people can strategically conserve effort even further. We discuss these findings in the context of decision making, motivation, and consciousness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• The Role of Mind-Wandering in Measurements of General Aptitude.

  Authors: Michael D Mrazek, Jonathan Smallwood, Michael S Franklin, Jason M Chin, Benjamin Baird, Jonathan W Schooler

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  Tests of working memory capacity (WMC) and fluid intelligence (gF) are thought to capture variability in a crucial cognitive capacity that is broadly predictive of success, yet pinpointing the exactTests of working memory capacity (WMC) and fluid intelligence (gF) are thought to capture variability in a crucial cognitive capacity that is broadly predictive of success, yet pinpointing the exact nature of this capacity is an area of ongoing controversy. We propose that mind-wandering is associated with performance on tests of WMC and gF, thereby partially explaining both the reliable correlations between these tests and their broad predictive utility. Existing evidence indicates that both WMC and gF are correlated with performance on tasks of attention, yet more decisive evidence requires an assessment of the role of attention and, in particular, mind-wandering during performance of these tests. Four studies employing complementary methodological designs embedded thought sampling into tests of general aptitude and determined that mind-wandering was consistently associated with worse performance on these measures. Collectively, these studies implicate the capacity to avoid mind-wandering during demanding tasks as a potentially important source of success on measures of general aptitude, while also raising important questions about whether the previously documented relationship between WMC and mind-wandering can be exclusively attributed to executive failures preceding mind-wandering (McVay & Kane, 2010b). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• Improving the Past and the Future: A Temporal Asymmetry in Hypothetical Thinking.

  Authors: Donatella Ferrante, Vittorio Girotto, Marta Stragà, Clare Walsh

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  Current views of hypothetical thinking implicitly assume that the content of imaginary thoughts about the past and future should be the same. Two experiments show that, given the same experiencedCurrent views of hypothetical thinking implicitly assume that the content of imaginary thoughts about the past and future should be the same. Two experiments show that, given the same experienced facts of reality, future imagination may differ from past reconstruction. When participants failed a task, their counterfactual thoughts focused on uncontrollable features of their attempt (e.g., "Things would have been better if the allocated time were longer/if I had better logic skills"). But their prefactual thoughts focused on controllable features of their ensuing endeavor (e.g., "Things will be better next time if I concentrate more/if I use another strategy"). This finding suggests that compared with prefactual thinking, counterfactual thinking may be less subject to reality checks and less likely to serve preparatory goals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• Visual Perception and Regulatory Conflict: Motivation and Physiology Influence Distance Perception.

  Authors: Shana Cole, Emily Balcetis, Sam Zhang

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  Regulatory conflict can emerge when people experience a strong motivation to act on goals but a conflicting inclination to withhold action because physical resources available, or physiologicalRegulatory conflict can emerge when people experience a strong motivation to act on goals but a conflicting inclination to withhold action because physical resources available, or physiological potentials, are low. This study demonstrated that distance perception is biased in ways that theory suggests assists in managing this conflict. Participants estimated the distance to a target location. Individual differences in physiological potential measured via waist-to-hip ratio interacted with manipulated motivational states to predict visual perception. Among people low in physiological potential and likely to experience regulatory conflict, the environment appeared easier to traverse when motivation was strong compared with weak. Among people high in potential and less likely to experience conflict, perception was not predicted by motivational strength. The role of motivated distance perception in self-regulation is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• When Does a Good Working Memory Counteract Proactive Interference? Surprising Evidence From a Probe Recognition Task.

  Authors: Nelson Cowan, J Scott Saults

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  It is often proposed that individuals with high working memory span overcome proactive interference (PI) from previous trials, saving working memory for task-relevant items. We examined thisIt is often proposed that individuals with high working memory span overcome proactive interference (PI) from previous trials, saving working memory for task-relevant items. We examined this hypothesis in word-list probe recognition. We found no difference in PI related to span. Instead, ex-Gaussian analysis of reaction time showed speed advantages for high spans specific to short lists (3 or 4 items) but absent from longer lists (6 or 8 items). We suggest that high-span advantages in reaction time are based on finesse during easy trials, not on overcoming PI. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• Contextual Modulation of Mirror and Countermirror Sensorimotor Associations.

  Authors: Richard Cook, Anthony Dickinson, Cecilia Heyes

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  Automatic imitation-the unintended copying of observed actions-is thought to be a behavioral product of the mirror neuron system (MNS). Evidence that the MNS develops through associative learningAutomatic imitation-the unintended copying of observed actions-is thought to be a behavioral product of the mirror neuron system (MNS). Evidence that the MNS develops through associative learning comes from previous research showing that automatic imitation is attenuated by countermirror training, in which the observation of one action is paired contingently with the execution of a different action. If the associative account of the MNS is correct, countermirror training should show context specificity, because countermirror associations render action stimuli ambiguous, and ambiguity promotes contextual control. Two experiments that confirm this prediction are reported. In Experiment 1 we found less residual automatic imitation when human participants were tested in their countermirror training context. In Experiment 2, sensorimotor training where participants made action responses to novel abstract stimuli was insensitive to the same context manipulation, confirming that the former result was not a procedural artifact. Contextual modulation may enable the MNS to function effectively in spite of the fact that action observation often excites multiple conflicting MNS responses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• Mere Exposure Revisited: The Influence of Growth Versus Security Cues on Evaluations of Novel and Familiar Stimuli.

  Authors: Marleen Gillebaart, Jens Förster, Mark Rotteveel

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  Combining regulatory focus theory (Higgins, 1997) and novelty categorization theory (Förster, Marguc, & Gillebaart, 2010), we predicted that novel stimuli would be more positively evaluated whenCombining regulatory focus theory (Higgins, 1997) and novelty categorization theory (Förster, Marguc, & Gillebaart, 2010), we predicted that novel stimuli would be more positively evaluated when focused on growth as compared with security and that familiar stimuli would be more negatively evaluated when focused on growth as compared with security. This would occur, at least in part, because of changes in category breadth. We tested effects of several variables linked to growth and security on evaluations of novel and familiar stimuli. Using a subliminal mere exposure paradigm, results showed novel stimuli were evaluated more positively in a promotion focus compared to a prevention focus (Experiments 1A-1C), with high power compared to low power (Experiment 2A), and with the color blue compared to red (Experiment 2B). For familiar stimuli, all effects were reversed. Additionally, as predicted by novelty categorization theory, novel stimuli were liked better after broad compared to narrow category priming, and familiar stimuli were liked better after narrow compared with broad category priming (Experiment 3). We suggest, therefore, that although familiarity glows warmly in security-related contexts, people prefer novelty when they are primarily focused on growth. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• Does Positive Affect Broaden and Negative Affect Narrow Attentional Scope? A New Answer to an Old Question.

  Authors: Jeffrey R Huntsinger

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  The current research challenges the common view that positive affect and negative affect generate a broadened or narrowed attentional focus, respectively. Contrary to this view, two studies foundThe current research challenges the common view that positive affect and negative affect generate a broadened or narrowed attentional focus, respectively. Contrary to this view, two studies found that the link between affect and attentional focus as measured by a traditional flanker task (Study 1) and a modified flanker task (Study 2) reflects whatever focus is momentarily dominant. Further, in these studies when neither focus was dominant, the link between affect and attentional focus vanished. These results demonstrate that, like reward, positive affect and negative affect are not dedicated to a particular broadened or narrowed attentional scope but rather provide embodied information about the value of currently accessible attentional orientations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• Stability and Change in Markers of Core Numerical Competencies.

  Authors: Robert Reeve, Fiona Reynolds, Judi Humberstone, Brian Butterworth

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  Dot enumeration (DE) and number comparison (NC) abilities are considered markers of core number competence. Differences in DE/NC reaction time (RT) signatures are thought to distinguish betweenDot enumeration (DE) and number comparison (NC) abilities are considered markers of core number competence. Differences in DE/NC reaction time (RT) signatures are thought to distinguish between typical and atypical number development. Whether a child's DE and NC signatures change or remain stable over time, relative to other developmental signatures, is unknown. To investigate these issues, the DE and NC RT signatures of 159 children were assessed 7 times over 6 years. Cluster analyses identified within-task and across-age subgroups. DE signatures comprised 4 parameters: (a) the RT slope within the subitizing range, (b) the RT slope for the counting range, (c) the subitizing range (indicated by the point of slope discontinuity), and (d) the overall average DE RT response. NC RT signatures comprised 2 parameters (NC intercept and slope) derived from RTs comparing numbers 1 to 9. Analyses yielded 3 distinct DE and NC profiles at each age. Within-age subgroup profiles reflected differences in 3 of the 4 DE parameters and only 1 NC parameter. Systematic changes in parameters were observed across ages for both tasks, and both tasks broadly identified the same subgroups. Sixty-nine percent of children were assigned to the same subgroup across age, even though parameters themselves changed across age. Subgroups did not differ in processing speed or nonverbal reasoning, suggesting that DE and NC do not tap general cognitive abilities but reflect individual differences specific to the domain of numbers. Indeed, both DE and NC subgroup membership at 6 years predicted computation ability at 6 years, 9.5 years, and 10 years. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• The Pot Calling the Kettle Black: Distancing Response to Ethical Dissonance.

  Authors: Rachel Barkan, Shahar Ayal, Francesca Gino, Dan Ariely

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  Six studies demonstrate the "pot calling the kettle black" phenomenon whereby people are guilty of the very fault they identify in others. Recalling an undeniable ethical failure, people experienceSix studies demonstrate the "pot calling the kettle black" phenomenon whereby people are guilty of the very fault they identify in others. Recalling an undeniable ethical failure, people experience ethical dissonance between their moral values and their behavioral misconduct. Our findings indicate that to reduce ethical dissonance, individuals use a double-distancing mechanism. Using an overcompensating ethical code, they judge others more harshly and present themselves as more virtuous and ethical (Studies 1, 2, 3). We show this mechanism is exclusive for ethical dissonance and is not triggered by salience of ethicality (Study 4), general sense of personal failure, or ethically neutral cognitive dissonance (Study 5). Finally, it is characterized by some boundary conditions (Study 6). We discuss the theoretical contribution of this work to research on moral regulation and ethical behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• ERN and the Placebo: A Misattribution Approach to Studying the Arousal Properties of the Error-Related Negativity.

  Authors: Michael Inzlicht, Timour Al-Khindi

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  Performance monitoring in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) has largely been viewed as a cognitive, computational process devoid of emotion. A growing body of research, however, suggests thatPerformance monitoring in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) has largely been viewed as a cognitive, computational process devoid of emotion. A growing body of research, however, suggests that performance is moderated by motivational engagement and that a signal generated by the ACC, the error-related negativity (ERN), may partially reflect a distress response to errors. Although suggestive, this past work is hampered by use of correlational designs or by designs that confound affect and cognitive performance. Here we use the misattribution of arousal paradigm-an experimental paradigm that pilot research shows can dissociate affect from cognitive performance-to investigate the extent to which the ERN has arousal properties. Forty university students completed a misattribution of arousal paradigm by consuming a beverage they believed would either increase their anxiety or would have no side effects and then completed a go/no-go task while we recorded ERNs. Results indicate that participants who were given the opportunity to misattribute arousal exhibited a reduced ERN compared with participants who were not given any misattribution cues. This occurred despite no measurable differences in performance on the go/no-go task. In addition, correlations between the ERN and behavior were observed only for participants who did not misattribute their arousal to the placebo beverage. Taken together, these results suggest that the ERN is dissociable from cognitive performance but not negative affect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• Improving Working Memory Efficiency by Reframing Metacognitive Interpretation of Task Difficulty.

  Authors: Frédérique Autin, Jean-Claude Croizet

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  Working memory capacity, our ability to manage incoming information for processing purposes, predicts achievement on a wide range of intellectual abilities. Three randomized experiments (N = 310)Working memory capacity, our ability to manage incoming information for processing purposes, predicts achievement on a wide range of intellectual abilities. Three randomized experiments (N = 310) tested the effectiveness of a brief psychological intervention designed to boost working memory efficiency (i.e., state working memory capacity) by alleviating concerns about incompetence subtly generated by demanding tasks. Sixth graders either received or did not receive a prior 10-min intervention designed to reframe metacognitive interpretation of difficulty as indicative of learning rather than of self-limitation. The intervention improved children's working memory span and reading comprehension and also reduced the accessibility of self-related thoughts of incompetence. These findings demonstrate that constructing a psychologically safe environment through reframing metacognitive interpretation of subjective difficulty can allow children to express their full cognitive potential. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• A Tri-Reference Point Theory of Decision Making Under Risk.

  Authors: X T Wang, Joseph G Johnson

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  The tri-reference point (TRP) theory takes into account minimum requirements (MR), the status quo (SQ), and goals (G) in decision making under risk. The 3 reference points demarcate risky outcomesThe tri-reference point (TRP) theory takes into account minimum requirements (MR), the status quo (SQ), and goals (G) in decision making under risk. The 3 reference points demarcate risky outcomes and risk perception into 4 functional regions: success (expected value of x ≥ G), gain (SQ < × < G), loss (MR ≤ x < SQ), and failure (x < MR). The psychological impact of achieving or failing to achieve these reference points is rank ordered as MR > G > SQ. We present TRP assumptions and value functions and a mathematical formalization of the theory. We conducted empirical tests of crucial TRP predictions using both explicit and implicit reference points. We show that decision makers consider both G and MR and give greater weight to MR than G, indicating failure aversion (i.e., the disutility of a failure is greater than the utility of a success in the same task) in addition to loss aversion (i.e., the disutility of a loss is greater than the utility of the same amount of gain). Captured by a double-S shaped value function with 3 inflection points, risk preferences switched between risk seeking and risk aversion when the distribution of a gamble straddled a different reference point. The existence of MR (not G) significantly shifted choice preference toward risk aversion even when the outcome distribution of a gamble was well above the MR. Single reference point based models such as prospect theory cannot consistently account for these findings. The TRP theory provides simple guidelines for evaluating risky choices for individuals and organizational management. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• The Physical Burdens of Secrecy.

  Authors: Michael L Slepian, E J Masicampo, Negin R Toosi, Nalini Ambady

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  The present work examined whether secrets are experienced as physical burdens, thereby influencing perception and action. Four studies examined the behavior of people who harbored important secrets,The present work examined whether secrets are experienced as physical burdens, thereby influencing perception and action. Four studies examined the behavior of people who harbored important secrets, such as secrets concerning infidelity and sexual orientation. People who recalled, were preoccupied with, or suppressed an important secret estimated hills to be steeper, perceived distances to be farther, indicated that physical tasks would require more effort, and were less likely to help others with physical tasks. The more burdensome the secret and the more thought devoted to it, the more perception and action were influenced in a manner similar to carrying physical weight. Thus, as with physical burdens, secrets weigh people down. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• Predicting Word Reading and Comprehension With Executive Function and Speed Measures Across Development: A Latent Variable Analysis.

  Authors: Micaela E Christopher, Akira Miyake, Janice M Keenan, Bruce Pennington, John C Defries, Sally J Wadsworth, Erik Willcutt, Richard K Olson

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  The present study explored whether different executive control and speed measures (working memory, inhibition, processing speed, and naming speed) independently predict individual differences in wordThe present study explored whether different executive control and speed measures (working memory, inhibition, processing speed, and naming speed) independently predict individual differences in word reading and reading comprehension. Although previous studies suggest these cognitive constructs are important for reading, the authors analyze the constructs simultaneously to test whether each is a unique predictor. Latent variables from 483 participants (ages 8-16 years) were used to portion each cognitive and reading construct into its unique and shared variance. In these models 2 specific issues are addressed: (a) Given that the wide age range may span the theoretical transition from "learning to read" to "reading to learn," the authors first test whether the relation between word reading and reading comprehension is stable across 2 age groups (ages 8-10 and 11-16); and (b) the main theoretical question of interest: whether what is shared and what is separable for word reading and reading comprehension are associated with individual differences in working memory, inhibition, and measures of processing and naming speed. The results indicated that (a) the relation between word reading and reading comprehension is largely invariant across the age groups, and (b) working memory and general processing speed, but not inhibition or the speeded naming of nonalphanumeric stimuli, are unique predictors of both word reading and comprehension, with working memory equally important for both reading abilities and processing speed more important for word reading. These results have implications for understanding why reading comprehension and word reading are highly correlated yet separable. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

• Fluid Movement and Creativity.

  Authors: Michael L Slepian, Nalini Ambady

  Journal of experimental psychology. General.

  Cognitive scientists describe creativity as fluid thought. Drawing from findings on gesture and embodied cognition, we hypothesized that the physical experience of fluidity, relative to nonfluidity,Cognitive scientists describe creativity as fluid thought. Drawing from findings on gesture and embodied cognition, we hypothesized that the physical experience of fluidity, relative to nonfluidity, would lead to more fluid, creative thought. Across 3 experiments, fluid arm movement led to enhanced creativity in 3 domains: creative generation, cognitive flexibility, and remote associations. Alternative mechanisms such as enhanced mood and motivation were also examined. These results suggest that creativity can be influenced by certain types of physical movement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

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