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• A rich history of scientific and educational contributions: celebrating 125 years of the american association of anatomists.

  Authors: Kurt H Albertine

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007). 295(6):900-1.

• The anatomical school of padua.

  Authors: Andrea Porzionato, Veronica Macchi, Carla Stecco, Anna Parenti, Raffaele De Caro

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007). 295(6):902-16.

  The University of Padua is one of the most ancient in the world, being founded in 1222, and the most important anatomists of the XVI, XVII, and XVIII centuries studied and taught here. Probably, theThe University of Padua is one of the most ancient in the world, being founded in 1222, and the most important anatomists of the XVI, XVII, and XVIII centuries studied and taught here. Probably, the first professor of anatomy and surgery was Bruno da Longobucco (c. 1200-c. 1286), who had previously studied at the Salerno School of Medicine. While professor in Padua, Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) published De Humani Corporis Fabrica (1543), which is considered as the birth of the modern anatomy. Following professors were Realdo Colombo (c. 1516-1559), Gabriel Fallopius (1523-1562), Hieronymus Fabricius ab Aquapendente (1533-1619), Iulius Casserius (1552-1616), Johann Wesling (1598-1649), and Johann Georg Wirsung (1589-1643). Many other foreign scholars studied in the University of Padua, such as Thomas Linacre (c. 1460-1524), the founder of the Royal College of Physicians, Werner Rolfinck (1599-1673), and Olof Rudbeck (1630-1702), who created anatomical theatres in Germany and Sweden, respectively, on the basis of the Paduan model. The anatomy of the XVII century characteristically widened the scope of its enquiry to function, as in the Exercitatio Anatomica De Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus (1628) by William Harvey (1578-1657). Further evolution was then given by the anatomy in the XVIII century, which tried to correlate alterations of structure with clinical symptoms. The most important anatomist of this century is Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682-1771), whose masterpiece De Sedibus et Causis Morborum per Anatomen Indagatis (1761) is a landmark contribution that is viewed as the beginning of modern pathologic anatomy. This year falls the 300th anniversary of Morgagni's inaugural lecture on medical education, Nova Institutionum Medicarum Idea (1712), which is still relevant in its effort to stress the importance of a deep knowledge of all the preclinical and clinical aspects of medical science.

• Fetal Gyrification in Cynomolgus Monkeys: A Concept of Developmental Stages of Gyrification.

  Authors: Kazuhiko Sawada, Katsuhiro Fukunishi, Masatoshi Kashima, Shigeyoshi Saito, Hiromi Sakata-Haga, Ichio Aoki, Yoshihiro Fukui

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007).

  Our article summarizes a series of studies about fetal gyrification and its relation to cerebral growth in cynomolgus monkeys. Based on the cerebral growth (i.e., brain weight, cerebral volume, andOur article summarizes a series of studies about fetal gyrification and its relation to cerebral growth in cynomolgus monkeys. Based on the cerebral growth (i.e., brain weight, cerebral volume, and frontooccipital length of the cerebral hemisphere) and the developmental pattern of gyrification in each sulcus of cynomolgus monkeys, we divided the gyrification process into four stages: Stage 1. Demarcation of cerebral lobes and limbic gyri; Stage 2. Demarcation of neocortical gyri; Stage 3. Emergence of secondary and tertiary sulci; and Stage 4. Growth of sulcal length and depth. Each stage of those gyrification processes was influenced by different developmental events, such as the emergence of corticocortical long-associative fiber tracts, cortical maturations, and subcortical white-matter development. This is the first report to systematically propose gyrification processes closely related to the order of phyologenetical development of the cerebral cortex in primates. Anat Rec, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

• Splenectomy Delays Uterine Natural Killer Cell Recruitment to Implantation Sites and Prolongs Pregnancy in Mice.

  Authors: Bruno Zavan, Celiane Cardoso Carvalho, Wagner Costa Rossi, Andréa Mollica Amarante Paffaro, Valdemar Antonio Paffaro

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007).

  Uterine natural killer (uNK) cells are the dominant lymphocytes found in pregnant mammals that develop uterine decidualization. Four stages of mouse uNK cell differentiation are recognized usingUterine natural killer (uNK) cells are the dominant lymphocytes found in pregnant mammals that develop uterine decidualization. Four stages of mouse uNK cell differentiation are recognized using Dolichos biflorus agglutinin (DBA) lectin histochemistry. Each uNK cell subtype has a preferential domain. In human and mouse normal pregnancies, uNK cells are activated interferon gamma-producing cells that promote angiogenesis and development of the decidua and placenta. Murine transplant models suggest that uNK cells differentiate from self-renewing progenitors found in peripheral secondary lymphoid tissues, particularly spleen and lymph nodes. In this work, the spleen was removed 7 days before mice were mated to address whether absence of the spleen reduced uNK cell numbers or altered the distributions of maturing uNK cell subsets using quantitative lectin histochemistry. Splenectomy delayed uNK cell maturation within implantation sites. This coincided with delayed decidual and placental development and a significant (48 hr) lengthening of gestation without loss of viability. These studies characterize spleen as a biologically important progenitor tissue for uNK precursor cells. Anat Rec, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

• Shape Analysis of the Corpus Callosum and Cerebellum in Female MS Patients with Different Clinical Phenotypes.

  Authors: Deniz Sigirli, Ilker Ercan, Senem Turan Ozdemir, Ozlem Taskapilioglu, Bahattin Hakyemez, Omer Faruk Turan

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007).

  The aim of this study was to investigate the shape differences in the corpus callosum (CC) and cerebellum of female relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) and secondary progressive multipleThe aim of this study was to investigate the shape differences in the corpus callosum (CC) and cerebellum of female relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) and secondary progressive multiple sclerosis (SPMS) patients compared with healthy controls. This study was conducted using the magnetic resonance imaging scans of 15 control subjects, 26 RRMS, and 14 SPMS patients. The data obtained from the landmark coordinates were analyzed with statistical shape analysis. The landmarks that were chosen to determine the shape differences of the CC and cerebellum have been identified and used in previous studies. In addition to these landmarks, constructed landmarks were determined and used to assess regional shape differences better. The shapes of the CC and cerebellum showed statistically significant differences from the controls when compared with both the RRMS and SPMS patients. It was found that the deformation observed from controls to SPMS was greater than the deformation from controls to RRMS, both for the CC and cerebellum. In conclusion, this study revealed CC and cerebellar shape change in RRMS and SPMS, and showed that deformations both in CC and cerebellum advances with the disease progression. Anat Rec, 2012. © 2012 Wiley-Periodicals, Inc.

• Tooth-On-Tooth Interlocking Occlusion Suggests Macrophagy in the Mesozoic Marine Crocodylomorph Dakosaurus.

  Authors: Mark T Young, Stephen L Brusatte, Brian L Beatty, Marco Brandalise De Andrade, Julia B Desojo

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007).

  Metriorhynchidae was a peculiar but long-lived group of marine Mesozoic crocodylomorphs adapted to a pelagic lifestyle. Recent discoveries show that metriorhynchids evolved a wide range ofMetriorhynchidae was a peculiar but long-lived group of marine Mesozoic crocodylomorphs adapted to a pelagic lifestyle. Recent discoveries show that metriorhynchids evolved a wide range of craniodental morphotypes and inferred feeding strategies. One genus, Dakosaurus, is arguably the most aberrant marine crocodylomorph due to its large, robust, ziphodont teeth; very low tooth count; and brevirostrine/oreinirostral snout. We here report an additional unusual feature of Dakosaurus that is unique among marine crocodylomorphs: tightly fitting tooth-to-tooth occlusion, whose inference is supported by reception pits along the upper and lower tooth rows, indicative of vertically orientated crowns that were in close contact during occlusion, and three distinct types of dental wear. These include irregular spalled surfaces near the apex (probably caused by tooth-food contact), semi-circular wear near the base, and elongate surfaces extending along the mesial and distal margins of the teeth, obliterating the carinae (including the denticles). Scanning electron micrographs show that these latter surfaces are marked by parallel apicobasal striations, which in extant mammals reflect tooth-tooth contact. As such, we interpret the carinal wear facets in Dakosaurus as being formed by repeated tooth-tooth contact between the mesial and distal margins of the teeth of the upper and lower jaw. We posit that this increased the available shearing surface on their high crowns. Together, these wear patterns suggest that occlusion in Dakosaurus was specialized for cutting large and abrasive prey items into portions small enough to swallow, making it a prime example of an aquatic reptile with macrophagous feeding habits. Anat Rec, 2012. © 2012 Wiley-Periodicals, Inc.

• The Viability of Perilabyrinthine Osteocytes: A Quantitative Study Using Bulk-Stained Undecalcified Human Temporal Bones.

  Authors: Sune Land Bloch, Søren Lund Kristensen, Mads Sølvsten Sørensen

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007).

  Bone remodeling is highly inhibited around the inner ear space, most likely by the anti-resorptive action of the inner ear cytokine osteoprotegerin (OPG) entering perilabyrinthine bone through theBone remodeling is highly inhibited around the inner ear space, most likely by the anti-resorptive action of the inner ear cytokine osteoprotegerin (OPG) entering perilabyrinthine bone through the lacuno-canalicular porosity (LCP). This extracellular signaling pathway depends on the viability of individual osteocytes. The objective of this study was to evaluate the patency of the LCP at different ages. Sixty-five bulk-stained undecalcified human temporal bones and 19 ribs were selected to span the ages from the 30th gestational week to 95 years. Osteocytes from inside a 2-mm wide perilabyrinthine zone of bone were identified by 3D vector calculations and the numerical densities estimated with an optical dissector and compared to age-matched ribs. From a high fetal count of 90,000 cells/mm(3) , the density of viable capsular osteocytes declined rapidly to 73,000 cells/mm(3) at three years of age, and non-viable osteocytes increased inversely. After 3 years, this decline/increase continued at a much slower rate. The densities of viable as well as non-viable osteocytes and the rates of change were much higher in perilabyrinthine bone compared to ribs. Only after the age of 80 years had the density of viable capsular osteocytes declined to the level of ribs. The bi-phasic osteocyte kinetics reflects different development stages. The high initial density of viable osteocytes may secure a life-long anatomical route for inner-ear OPG despite the unique accumulation of non-viable osteocytes. Clustering of non-viable osteocytes may cause local aberrations in the signaling system by closure of the LCP. Anat Rec, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

• Skull Mechanics and the Evolutionary Patterns of the Otic Notch Closure in Capitosaurs (Amphibia: Temnospondyli).

  Authors: Josep Fortuny, Jordi Marcé-Nogué, Lluis Gil, Angel Galobart

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007).

  Capitosaurs were among the largest amphibians that have ever lived. Their members displayed an amphibious lifestyle. We provide new information on functional morphology data, using finite elementCapitosaurs were among the largest amphibians that have ever lived. Their members displayed an amphibious lifestyle. We provide new information on functional morphology data, using finite element analysis (FEA) which has palaeoecological implications for the group. Our analyses included 17 taxa using (2D) plate models to test four loading cases (bilateral, unilateral and lateral bitings and skull raising system simulation). Our results demonstrates that, when feeding, capitosaurs concentrated the stress at the circumorbital region of the capitosaur skull and cranial sutures probably played a key role in dissipating and absorbing the stress generated during biting. Basal members (as Wetlugasaurus) were probably less specialized forms, while during Middle- and Late Triassic the group radiated into different ecomorphotypes with closed otic notch forms (as Cyclotosaurus) resulting in the strongest skulls during biting. Previous interpretations discussed a trend from an open to closed otic notch associated with lateral repositioning of the tabular horns, but the analysis of the skull-raising system reveals that taxa exhibiting posteriorly directed tabular horns display similar results during skull raising to those of closed otic notch taxa. Our results suggest that various constraints besides otic notch morphology, such as the elongation of the tabular horns, snout length, skull width and position, and size of the orbits affect the function of the skull. On the light of our results, capitosaur skull showed a trend to reduce the stresses and deformation during biting. Capitosaurs could be considered crocodilian analogues as they were top-level predators in fluvial and brackish Triassic ecosystems. Anat Rec, , 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

• Analysis of Dental Root Apical Morphology: A New Method for Dietary Reconstructions in Primates.

  Authors: Noémie Hamon, Edouard-Georges Emonet, Yaowalak Chaimanee, Franck Guy, Paul Tafforeau, Jean-Jacques Jaeger

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007).

  The reconstruction of paleo-diets is an important task in the study of fossil primates. Previously, paleo-diet reconstructions were performed using different methods based on extant primate models.The reconstruction of paleo-diets is an important task in the study of fossil primates. Previously, paleo-diet reconstructions were performed using different methods based on extant primate models. In particular, dental microwear or isotopic analyses provided accurate reconstructions for some fossil primates. However, there is sometimes difficult or impossible to apply these methods to fossil material. Therefore, the development of new, independent methods of diet reconstructions is crucial to improve our knowledge of primates paleobiology and paleoecology. This study aims to investigate the correlation between tooth root apical morphology and diet in primates, and its potential for paleo-diet reconstructions. Dental roots are composed of two portions: the eruptive portion with a smooth and regular surface, and the apical penetrative portion which displays an irregular and corrugated surface. Here, the angle formed by these two portions (aPE), and the ratio of penetrative portion over total root length (PPI), are calculated for each mandibular tooth root. A strong correlation between these two variables and the proportion of some food types (fruits, leaves, seeds, animal matter, and vertebrates) in diet is found, allowing the use of tooth root apical morphology as a tool for dietary reconstructions in primates. The method was then applied to the fossil hominoid Khoratpithecus piriyai, from the Late Miocene of Thailand. The paleo-diet deduced from aPE and PPI is dominated by fruits (>50%), associated with animal matter (1-25%). Leaves, vertebrates and most probably seeds were excluded from the diet of Khoratpithecus, which is consistent with previous studies. Anat Rec, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

• 3D Analysis of the Forearm Rotational Efficiency Variation in Humans.

  Authors: Pere Ibáñez-Gimeno, Xavier Jordana, Joan Manyosa, Assumpció Malgosa, Ignasi Galtés

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007).

  Pronosupination is a component of the hominoid orthograde corporal plane that enables primates to execute efficient and sure locomotion in their habitat and is an essential movement for thePronosupination is a component of the hominoid orthograde corporal plane that enables primates to execute efficient and sure locomotion in their habitat and is an essential movement for the development of manipulative capacities. We analyze human variability in the rotational efficiency of the pronator teres muscle by applying the biomechanical model created by Galtés et al. (Am J Phys Anthropol 2008; 135:293-300; Am J Phys Anthropol 2009a; 140:589-594) to skeletal remains of a human sample (N = 29) and three nonhuman hominoid specimens (chimpanzee, gorilla, and orangutan) by means of 3D technology. We aim to examine whether there is a distinctive human pattern of rotational efficiency and determine which structural features of the upper-limb bones have the greatest influence on the determination of rotational efficiency. Our results show that the human pattern differs from efficiencies observed in nonhuman hominoids, which may be interpreted in the light of morphofunctional adaptations. We identify medial epicondylar form as the key structure of the upper-limb bones for the determination of the rotational efficiency of the forearm. Results indicate that the more medially projected epicondyle of nonhuman hominoids relative to humans leads to higher values of maximum rotational efficiency. Moreover, the orientation of the medial epicondyle determines the pronounced differences in the position of the maximum efficiencies in the pronosupination range between humans and the studied nonhuman hominoids. Proximodistal orientation of the medial epicondyle is suggested to be a more appropriate feature for distinguishing between humans and nonhuman hominoids than anteroposterior orientation and, therefore, for inferring behavioral aspects from skeletal remains and fossils of primate upper-limb bones. Anat Rec, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

• The Arrangement of Fascicles in Whole Muscle.

  Authors: Benjamin W Infantolino, Thomas Neuberger, John H Challis

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007).

  The architecture of the muscle fascicles, here meaning their lengths and their arrangement relative to one another, has important implications for the force a muscle can produce. Therefore,The architecture of the muscle fascicles, here meaning their lengths and their arrangement relative to one another, has important implications for the force a muscle can produce. Therefore, quantifying this architectural arrangement and understanding the implications of the architecture are important for understanding muscle function in vivo. There were two purposes of this study: (1) to assess, via blunt dissection, the number and the length of all the fascicles comprising the First Dorsal Interosseous (FDI) muscle and (2) to visually identify, via magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), the arrangement of the fascicles comprising the FDI. Simple blunt dissection of all the fascicles comprising four FDI muscles and their subsequent measurement demonstrated that the fascicles comprising the whole muscle were not as long as the muscle belly from which they were extracted. Muscle fascicles are surrounded by connective tissue hence the paths of the fascicles in two whole FDI muscles were identified via MRI by tracking the connective tissue surrounding the fascicles. The fascicles had a spiral pattern along the length of each muscle, within both muscles many of the fascicles were arranged in series with other fascicles. These architectural features of the fascicles of the FDI have important implications for the force-length and force-velocity properties of the whole muscle. Anat Rec, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

• The Prenatal Toxic Effect of Methylmercury on the Development of the Appendicular Skeleton of Rat Fetuses and the Protective Role of Vitamin E.

  Authors: Gamal S Abd El-Aziz, Magdy M O El-Fark, Hamid A M Saleh

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007).

  Methylmercury (MeHg) is an environmental contaminant that is found in many ecosystems. Many studies reported that MeHg toxicity is accompanied by increased lipid peroxidation that may lead toMethylmercury (MeHg) is an environmental contaminant that is found in many ecosystems. Many studies reported that MeHg toxicity is accompanied by increased lipid peroxidation that may lead to oxidative damage to DNA, RNA, and proteins. Vitamin E is considered as the most effective antioxidant preventing lipid peroxidation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of MeHg exposure during pregnancy on the development of the appendicular skeleton in rat fetuses and whether vitamin E administration could reduce this toxicity. Positively mated adult female Sprague-Dawley rats were used and divided into the following experimental groups: control group, received only deionized water, and four MeHg treated groups received 1 mg of MeHg/kg/d, 2 mg of MeHg/kg/d, 1 mg of MeHg/kg/d plus 150 mg of vitamin E/kg/d, and 2 mg of MeHg/kg/d, plus 150 mg of vitamin E/kg/d starting from Day 0 of gestation. On Day 20 of gestation, the fetuses from the pregnant rats were extracted and the fetal growth parameters were evaluated. Skeletal evaluation of ossification of both fore- and hind-limbs, and coxal bones were undertaken. Results showed that treatment with MeHg caused adverse effects on fetal growth parameters and ossification of the bones. The coadministration of vitamin E with MeHg revealed an improvement in these parameters. These results suggest that vitamin E may ameliorate some aspects of MeHg developmental toxicity. The underlying and human health implications warrant further investigations. Anat Rec, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

• Types of imaging, part 1: electron microscopy.

  Authors: Ellen Jensen

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007). 295(5):716-21.

• Thalamic connections of auditory cortex in marmoset monkeys: lateral belt and parabelt regions.

  Authors: Lisa A de la Mothe, Suzanne Blumell, Yoshinao Kajikawa, Troy A Hackett

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007). 295(5):822-36.

  The primate auditory cortex is comprised of a core region of three primary areas, surrounded by a belt region of secondary areas and a parabelt region lateral to the belt. The main sources ofThe primate auditory cortex is comprised of a core region of three primary areas, surrounded by a belt region of secondary areas and a parabelt region lateral to the belt. The main sources of thalamocortical inputs to the auditory cortex are the medial geniculate complex (MGC), medial pulvinar (PM), and several adjoining nuclei in the posterior thalamus. The distribution of inputs varies topographically by cortical area and thalamic nucleus, but in a manner that has not been fully characterized in primates. In this study, the thalamocortical connections of the lateral belt and parabelt were determined by placing retrograde tracer injections into various areas of these regions in the marmoset monkey. Both regions received projections from the medial (MGm) and posterodorsal (MGpd) divisions of the medial geniculate complex (MGC); however, labeled cells in the anterodorsal (MGad) division were present only from injections into the caudal belt. Thalamic inputs to the lateral belt appeared to come mainly from the MGC, whereas the parabelt also received a strong projection from the PM, consistent with its position as a later stage of auditory cortical processing. The results of this study also indicate that the organization of the marmoset auditory cortex is similar to other primates. Anat Rec, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

• Types of imaging, part 1: electron microscopy.

  Authors: Ellen Jensen

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007). 295(5):C1.

• Positron emission tomography molecular imaging of dopaminergic system in drug addiction.

  Authors: Haifeng Hou, Mei Tian, Hong Zhang

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007). 295(5):722-33.

  Dopamine (DA) is involved in drug reinforcement, but its role in drug addiction remains unclear. Positron emission tomography (PET) is the first technology used for the direct measurement ofDopamine (DA) is involved in drug reinforcement, but its role in drug addiction remains unclear. Positron emission tomography (PET) is the first technology used for the direct measurement of components of the dopaminergic system in the living human brain. In this article, we reviewed the major findings of PET imaging studies on the involvement of DA in drug addiction, especially in heroin addiction. Furthermore, we summarized PET radiotracers that have been used to study the role of DA in drug addiction. To investigate presynaptic function in drug addiction, PET tracers have been developed to measure DA synthesis and transport. For the investigation of postsynaptic function, several radioligands targeting dopamine one (D1) receptor and dopamine two (D2) receptor are extensively used in PET imaging studies. Moreover, we also summarized the PET imaging findings of heroin addiction studies, including heroin-induced DA increases and the reinforcement, role of DA in the long-term effects of heroin abuse, DA and vulnerability to heroin abuse and the treatment implications. PET imaging studies have corroborated the role of DA in drug addiction and increase our understanding the mechanism of drug addiction. Anat Rec, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

• Biometry and statistical analysis of the styloid process.

  Authors: Félix Jesús De Paz, S Rueda, Mercedes Barbosa, María García, Juan Francisco Pastor

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007). 295(5):742-7.

  The hyoid apparatus is made up of three osteocartilaginous elements that go from the base of the cranium to the hyoid bone; the portions, cranially to caudally, are as follow: stylohyal, ceratohyal,The hyoid apparatus is made up of three osteocartilaginous elements that go from the base of the cranium to the hyoid bone; the portions, cranially to caudally, are as follow: stylohyal, ceratohyal, and apohyal. Fusion and ossification of these three components will bring about somewhat long stylohyoid processes, whereas the stylohyal portion is the one that gives rise to the authentic stylohyoid process. The variability of the hyoid apparatus may imply associated compressive pathologies, for which an etiological diagnosis is important. A study was undertaken of 835 craniums of a homogeneous male and female adult population, involving a morphometric analysis of the styloid processes in which quantification was made of the following continual descriptive measurements: thickness, length, sagittal angle, transversal angle, and the distance between vertices. Multivariate data analysis techniques were applied to the data set to describe the relationships between these measurements. The main conclusion from the analysis is the existence of two different groups of styloid processes and the derivation of a prediction score. Anat Rec, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

• Modeling the Human Mandible Under Masticatory Loads: Which Input Variables are Important?

  Authors: Flora Gröning, Michael Fagan, Paul O'higgins

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007). 295(5):853-63.

  Finite element analyses (FEA) that have simulated masticatory loadings of the human mandible differ significantly with regard to their basic input variables such as material properties, constraints,Finite element analyses (FEA) that have simulated masticatory loadings of the human mandible differ significantly with regard to their basic input variables such as material properties, constraints, and applied forces. With sensitivity analyses it is possible to assess how the choice of different input values and the degree of model simplification affect FEA results. However, published FEA studies are rarely accompanied by sensitivity analyses so that the robusticity of their results is impossible to assess. Here, we conduct a sensitivity analysis with an FE model of a human mandible to quantify the relative importance of several modeling decisions: (1) the material properties assigned to the cancellous bone tissue; (2) the inclusion or not of the periodontal ligament; (3) the constraints at the joints and bite point; and (4) the orientation of applied muscle forces. We study the effects of varying these properties by analysing the strain magnitudes and directions across the model surface. In addition, we perform a geometric morphometric analysis of the deformation resulting from the loading of each model. The results show that the effects of altering the different model properties can be significant and that most effects are potentially large enough to cause problems for the biological interpretation of FEA results. We therefore recommend that researchers conduct more sensitivity analyses than at present to assess the robusticity of their FEA results and their biological conclusions. Anat Rec, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

• Cortical connections of auditory cortex in marmoset monkeys: lateral belt and parabelt regions.

  Authors: Lisa A de la Mothe, Suzanne Blumell, Yoshinao Kajikawa, Troy A Hackett

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007). 295(5):800-21.

  The current working model of primate auditory cortex is constructed from a number of studies of both new and old world monkeys. It includes three levels of processing. A primary level, the coreThe current working model of primate auditory cortex is constructed from a number of studies of both new and old world monkeys. It includes three levels of processing. A primary level, the core region, is surrounded both medially and laterally by a secondary belt region. A third level of processing, the parabelt region, is located lateral to the belt. The marmoset monkey (Callithrix jacchus jacchus) has become an important model system to study auditory processing, but its anatomical organization has not been fully established. In previous studies, we focused on the architecture and connections of the core and medial belt areas (de la Mothe et al., 2006a, J Comp Neurol 496:27-71; de la Mothe et al., 2006b, J Comp Neurol 496:72-96). In this study, the corticocortical connections of the lateral belt and parabelt were examined in the marmoset. Tracers were injected into both rostral and caudal portions of the lateral belt and parabelt. Both regions revealed topographic connections along the rostrocaudal axis, where caudal areas of injection had stronger connections with caudal areas, and rostral areas of injection with rostral areas. The lateral belt had strong connections with the core, belt, and parabelt, whereas the parabelt had strong connections with the belt but not the core. Label in the core from injections in the parabelt was significantly reduced or absent, consistent with the idea that the parabelt relies mainly on the belt for its cortical input. In addition, the present and previous studies indicate hierarchical principles of anatomical organization in the marmoset that are consistent with those observed in other primates. Anat Rec, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

• The Influence of Maximum Running Speed on Eye Size: A Test of Leuckart's Law in Mammals.

  Authors: Amber N Heard-Booth, E Christopher Kirk

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007).

  Vertebrate eye size is influenced by many factors, including body or head size, diet, and activity pattern. Locomotor speed has also been suggested to influence eye size in a relationship known asVertebrate eye size is influenced by many factors, including body or head size, diet, and activity pattern. Locomotor speed has also been suggested to influence eye size in a relationship known as Leuckart's Law. Leuckart's Law proposes that animals capable of achieving fast locomotor speeds require large eyes to enhance visual acuity and avoid collisions with environmental obstacles. The selective influence of rapid flight has been invoked to explain the relatively large eyes of birds, but Leuckart's Law remains untested in nonavian vertebrates. This study investigates the relationship between eye size and maximum running speed in a diverse sample of mammals. Measures of axial eye diameter, maximum running speed, and body mass were collected from the published literature for 50 species from 10 mammalian orders. This analysis reveals that absolute eye size is significantly positively correlated with maximum running speed in mammals. Moreover, the relationship between eye size and running speed remains significant when the potentially confounding effects of body mass and phylogeny are statistically controlled. The results of this analysis are therefore consistent with the expectations of Leuckart's Law and demonstrate that faster-moving mammals have larger eyes than their slower-moving close relatives. Accordingly, we conclude that maximum running speed is one of several key selective factors that have influenced the evolution of eye size in mammals. Anat Rec, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

• The Microvascular Anatomy of the Trachea in Adult Xenopus laevis Daudin (Lissamphibia; Anura): Scanning Electron Microscopy of Vascular Corrosion Casts and Correlative Light Microscopy.

  Authors: Wasan Tangphokhanon, Alois Lametschwandtner

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007).

  Studies on the amphibian respiratory tract microvascular anatomy are few and contradictory. Using scanning electron microscopy of vascular corrosion casts, correlative light microscopy ofStudies on the amphibian respiratory tract microvascular anatomy are few and contradictory. Using scanning electron microscopy of vascular corrosion casts, correlative light microscopy of paraplast-embedded Goldner-stained serial tissue sections, and three-dimensional morphometry, we studied the topographic microvascular anatomy in the trachea of the adult South African Clawed Toad, Xenopus laevis Daudin. Histomorphology showed that the cartilaginous portion of the trachea contained irregularly shaped hyaline cartilage plates in its cranial and caudal portions and C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings in the middle portion. Tracheal cartilages formed large continuous plates on the ventral circumference, numerous small discontinuous plates on the dorsal circumference, and large vertical plates on the caudolateral circumference. The muscular portion of the trachea consisted of bands of smooth muscle that joined the free ends of cartilage plates. The supply of the trachea was via pulmonal artery-tracheobronchial trunk artery-tracheobronchial artery-tracheal artery. The subepithelial capillary network consisted of rectangular meshes which are in the area of the tracheal cartilages located between the cartilages and the respiratory epithelium. Small tracheal veins merged into a single tracheal vein that emptied into the pulmonary vein. Because of its dense subepithelial capillary network and its drainage into the pulmonal vein, the trachea could actively take part in respiration. Anat Rec, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

• Effect of Triptolide on T-Cell Receptor Beta Variable Gene mRNA Expression in Rats With Collagen-Induced Arthritis.

  Authors: Jixi Wang, Aibing Wang, Heqing Zeng, Lantao Liu, Wenhao Jiang, Yongjie Zhu, Yudong Xu

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007).

  Triptolide (TP) has been used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), but its mechanism of action is not understood. T-cell activation and associated release of cytokines appear to be majorTriptolide (TP) has been used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), but its mechanism of action is not understood. T-cell activation and associated release of cytokines appear to be major factors in the pathogenesis of RA. The overexpression of T-cell receptor (TCR) variable gene (V gene) fragments can cause the activation and infiltration of autoreactive T cells. This study examines the effects of TP on rats with collagen-induced arthritis (CIA). The levels of interleukin-10 (IL-10) in the serum were examined with ELISA. Compared to the CIA group, the levels of IL-10 were greater in the TP treatment group. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction confirmed that the expression of TCR V beta (BV) 15 and TCR BV19 was increased in the CIA group, whereas in the TP treatment group, the expression was decreased. In this study, TP was found to enhance IL-10 levels and decrease the expression levels of TCR BV15 and TCR BV19. These changes might help explain the effectiveness of TP in the treatment of RA. Anat Rec, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

• Changes in Biomechanical Strain and Morphology of Rat Calvarial Sutures and Bone After Tgf-β3 Inhibition of Posterior Interfrontal Suture Fusion.

  Authors: Reiko Shibazaki-Yorozuya, Qian Wang, Paul C Dechow, Koutaro Maki, Lynne A Opperman

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007).

  Craniofacial sutures are bone growth fronts that respond and adapt to biomechanical environments. Little is known of the role sutures play in regulating the skull biomechanical environment duringCraniofacial sutures are bone growth fronts that respond and adapt to biomechanical environments. Little is known of the role sutures play in regulating the skull biomechanical environment during patency and fusion conditions, especially how delayed or premature suture fusion will impact skull biomechanics. Tgf-β3 has been shown to prevent or delay suture fusion over the short term in rat skulls, yet the long-term patency or its consequences in treated sutures is not known. It was therefore hypothesized that Tgf-β3 had a long-term impact to prevent suture fusion and thus alter the skull biomechanics. In this study, collagen gels containing 3 ng Tgf-β3 were surgically placed superficial to the posterior interfrontal suture (IFS) and deep to the periosteum in postnatal day 9 (P9) rats. At P9, P24, and P70, biting forces and strains over left parietal bone, posterior IFS, and sagittal suture were measured with masticatory muscles bilaterally stimulated, after which the rats were sacrificed and suture patency analyzed histologically. Results demonstrated that Tgf-β3 treated sutures showed less fusion over time than control groups, and strain patterns in the skulls of the Tgf-β3-treated group were different from that of the control group. Although bite force increased with age, no alterations in bite force were attributable to Tgf-β3 treatment. These findings suggest that the continued presence of patent sutures can affect strain patterns, perhaps when higher bite forces are present as in adult animals. Anat Rec,, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

• Branch-Based Model for the Diameters of the Pulmonary Airways: Accounting for Departures From Self-Consistency and Registration Errors.

  Authors: Moni B Neradilek, Nayak L Polissar, Daniel R Einstein, Robb W Glenny, Kevin R Minard, James P Carson, Xiangmin Jiao, Richard E Jacob, Timothy C Cox, Edward M Postlethwait, Richard A Corley

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007).

  We examine a previously published branch-based approach for modeling airway diameters that is predicated on the assumption of self-consistency across all levels of the tree. We mathematicallyWe examine a previously published branch-based approach for modeling airway diameters that is predicated on the assumption of self-consistency across all levels of the tree. We mathematically formulate this assumption, propose a method to test it and develop a more general model to be used when the assumption is violated. We discuss the effect of measurement error on the estimated models and propose methods that take account of error. The methods are illustrated on data from MRI and CT images of silicone casts of two rats, two normal monkeys, and one ozone-exposed monkey. Our results showed substantial departures from self-consistency in all five subjects. When departures from self-consistency exist, we do not recommend using the self-consistency model, even as an approximation, as we have shown that it may likely lead to an incorrect representation of the diameter geometry. The new variance model can be used instead. Measurement error has an important impact on the estimated morphometry models and needs to be addressed in the analysis. Anat Rec,, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

• Homocysteine Exposure Affects Early Hemodynamic Parameters of Embryonic Chicken Heart Function.

  Authors: Annelien M Oosterbaan, Els Bon, Regine P M Steegers-Theunissen, Anton F W Van Der Steen, Nicolette T C Ursem

  Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007).

  Maternal hyperhomocysteinemia has been associated with an increased risk of newborns with a congenital heart defect. This has been substantiated in the chicken embryo, as congenital heart defectsMaternal hyperhomocysteinemia has been associated with an increased risk of newborns with a congenital heart defect. This has been substantiated in the chicken embryo, as congenital heart defects have been induced after homocysteine treatment. Comparable heart defects are observed in venous clipping studies, a model of altered embryonic blood flow. Because of this overlap in heart defects, our aim was to test the hypothesis that homocysteine would cause alterations in embryonic heart function that precede the structural malformations previously described. Therefore, Doppler flow velocity waveforms were recorded in both primitive ventricles and the outflow tract of the embryonic heart of homocysteine treated and control chicken embryos at embryonic day 3.5. Homocysteine treatment consisted of 50 μL 0.05 M L-homocysteine thiolactone at 24, 48, and 72 hr. Homocysteine-treated embryos displayed significantly lower mean heart rates of 134 (SD 22) bpm, compared to 150 (14) bpm in control embryos. Homocysteine treatment caused an inhibiting effect on hemodynamic parameters, and altered heart function was presented by a shift in the proportions of the different wave times in percentage of total cycle time. Homocysteine induces changes in hemodynamic parameters of early embryonic chicken heart function. These changes may precede morphological changes and contribute to the development of CHD defects through alterations in shear stress and shear stress related genes, as seen before in venous clipping studies. Anat Rec,, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

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