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• The influence of visual search efficiency on the time-course of identity-based SR-compatibility.

  Authors: Wieske van Zoest, Alan Kingstone, Jan Theeuwes

  Acta psychologica. 140(1):101-109.

  Three experiments were conducted to investigate the impact of stimulus-driven control on the time-course of stimulus-response (SR) compatibility. Participants responded to the presence or absence ofThree experiments were conducted to investigate the impact of stimulus-driven control on the time-course of stimulus-response (SR) compatibility. Participants responded to the presence or absence of a singleton arrow that was presented among multiple nontargets. When the singleton arrow was present, observers pressed a button with their right index finger, when it was absent they pressed with their left-index finger. SR-compatibility depended on the relation between the identity of the target and the present response: Even though the identity of the target singleton arrow (whether it was pointing to the right or left) was irrelevant to the task, the direction could be corresponding (right arrow) or noncorresponding (left arrow) with a target present response (the right hand). To examine the time-course of performance target-distractor similarity was varied to increase or decrease visual search efficiency and accordingly response latency. There were three main findings. First, the results of Experiment 1 showed that observers were no faster to respond 'present' when the singleton arrow pointed to the right (corresponding to the right hand) than when it pointed left (noncorresponding to the right hand) in a simple present-absent detection task. Second, only when observers were encouraged to process the identity of the arrow singleton, an effect of an SR-compatibility effect was found which developed over time. Third, the time-course of SR-compatibility was not influenced by visual search efficiency. The results of the present work suggest that visual selection and response selection occur in different stages.

• Out of sight, out of mind: The presence of forensic evidence counts more than its absence.

  Authors: Anita Eerland, Lysanne S Post, Eric Rassin, Samantha Bouwmeester, Rolf A Zwaan

  Acta psychologica. 140(1):96-100.

  Recent evidence suggests that decision makers in criminal procedures are susceptible to biases. We previously found support for the presence of a feature positive effect (FPE, i.e., people attachRecent evidence suggests that decision makers in criminal procedures are susceptible to biases. We previously found support for the presence of a feature positive effect (FPE, i.e., people attach more meaning to present than to absent information) in legal-decision making. In this study, we tried to uncover the mechanisms behind the FPE. Taking a cue from the literature on situation models in language comprehension, we investigated whether a FPE manifests itself in the memorization and use of forensic evidence. Students read a case file about a fistfight as well as additional evidence. The forensic evidence was manipulated such that a FPE on guilt estimation and conviction rate could be assessed. While subjects read additional forensic evidence, their eye movements were recorded to explore the presence of FPE in online processing. Afterwards, subjects were asked to decide on the suspect's guilt. They had to recall all information they remembered from the case file and indicate which parts of information they considered relevant to this decision. The results provided evidence for the occurrence of FPE in memorization and use of information and can be explained by the theoretical construct of situation models.

• Lipread-induced phonetic recalibration in dyslexia.

  Authors: Martijn Baart, Liselotte de Boer-Schellekens, Jean Vroomen

  Acta psychologica. 140(1):91-95.

  Auditory phoneme categories are less well-defined in developmental dyslexic readers than in fluent readers. Here, we examined whether poor recalibration of phonetic boundaries might be associatedAuditory phoneme categories are less well-defined in developmental dyslexic readers than in fluent readers. Here, we examined whether poor recalibration of phonetic boundaries might be associated with this deficit. 22 adult dyslexic readers were compared with 22 fluent readers on a phoneme identification task and a task that measured phonetic recalibration by lipread speech (Bertelson, Vroomen, & De Gelder, 2003). In line with previous reports, we found that dyslexics were less categorical in the labeling of the speech sounds. The size of their phonetic recalibration effect, though, was comparable to that of normal readers. This result indicates that phonetic recalibration is unaffected in dyslexic readers, and that it is unlikely to lie at the foundation of their auditory phoneme categorization impairments. For normal readers however, it appeared that a well-calibrated system is related to auditory precision as the steepness of the auditory identification curve positively correlated with recalibration.

• Multi-digit number processing beyond the two-digit number range: A combination of sequential and parallel processes.

  Authors: Hauke S Meyerhoff, Korbinian Moeller, Kolja Debus, Hans-Christoph Nuerk

  Acta psychologica. 140(1):81-90.

  Investigations of multi-digit number processing typically focus on two-digit numbers. Here, we aim to investigate the generality of results from two-digit numbers for four- and six-digit numbers.Investigations of multi-digit number processing typically focus on two-digit numbers. Here, we aim to investigate the generality of results from two-digit numbers for four- and six-digit numbers. Previous studies on two-digit numbers mostly suggested a parallel processing of tens and units. In contrast, the few studies examining the processing of larger numbers suggest sequential processing of the individual constituting digits. In this study, we combined the methodological approaches of studies implying either parallel or sequential processing. Participants completed a number magnitude comparison task on two-, four-, and six-digit numbers including unit-decade compatible and incompatible differing digit pairs (e.g., 32_47, 3<4 and 2<7 vs. 37_52, 3<5 but 7>2, respectively) at all possible digit positions. Response latencies and fixation behavior indicated that sequential and parallel decomposition is not exclusive in multi-digit number processing. Instead, our results clearly suggested that sequential and parallel processing strategies seem to be combined when processing multi-digit numbers beyond the two-digit number range. To account for the results, we propose a chunking hypothesis claiming that multi-digit numbers are separated into chunks of shorter digit strings. While the different chunks are processed sequentially digits within these chunks are processed in parallel.

• Inhibition of return: A "depth-blind" mechanism?

  Authors: Maria Casagrande, Mariapaola Barbato, Stefania Mereu, Diana Martella, Andrea Marotta, Jan Theeuwes, Simon Lowes Collinson

  Acta psychologica. 140(1):75-80.

  When attention is oriented to a peripheral visual event, observers respond faster to stimuli presented at a cued location than at an uncued location. Following initial reaction time facilitationWhen attention is oriented to a peripheral visual event, observers respond faster to stimuli presented at a cued location than at an uncued location. Following initial reaction time facilitation responses are slower to stimuli subsequently displayed at the cued location, an effect known as inhibition of return (IOR). Both facilitatory and inhibitory effects have been extensively investigated in two-dimensional space. Facilitation has also been documented in three-dimensional space, however the presence of IOR in 3D space is unclear, possibly because IOR has not been evaluated in an empty 3D space. Determining if IOR is sensitive to the depth plane of stimuli or if only their bi-dimensional location is inhibited may clarify the nature of the IOR. To address this issue, we used an attentional cueing paradigm in three-dimensional (3D) space. Results were obtained from fourteen participants showed IOR components in 3D space when binocular disparity was used to induce depth. We conclude that attentional orienting in depth operates as efficiently as in the bi-dimensional space.

• Investigating the role of attentional resources in the irrelevant speech effect.

  Authors: Emily M Elliott, Alicia M Briganti

  Acta psychologica. 140(1):64-74.

  Irrelevant words can be disruptive to performance, and the frequency of usage of the irrelevant words has affected the magnitude of such disruption (Buchner & Erdfelder, 2005). The finding of wordIrrelevant words can be disruptive to performance, and the frequency of usage of the irrelevant words has affected the magnitude of such disruption (Buchner & Erdfelder, 2005). The finding of word frequency differences in the magnitude of the irrelevant speech effect (ISE) implicated a role for attentional processes. Using a different conceptualization of attention, researchers have found that individual differences in working memory capacity did not predict the magnitude of the ISE, which questioned the role of attentional control (Beaman, 2004; Sörqvist, 2010). The current study investigated aspects of the construct of attention and the ISE, using both individual and developmental difference approaches. Results showed no significant difference between serial recall performances in the presence of high or low word frequency distractors. Furthermore, effects of working memory capacity differences were not found, but children displayed a larger ISE than college students. The weight of the evidence appears against an attentional resource view of the ISE.

• Effects of modality on memory for original and misleading information.

  Authors: Katinka Dijkstra, Eelco Moerman

  Acta psychologica. 140(1):58-63.

  This study examined the role of modality in correct recognition and misinformation acceptance in a naturalistic event cognition task that reflected an everyday life sequence of events. ParticipantsThis study examined the role of modality in correct recognition and misinformation acceptance in a naturalistic event cognition task that reflected an everyday life sequence of events. Participants heard, observed or acted out a sequence of events and were tested on memory for these events after being presented with an accurate description of the events or a description containing misinformation. The results indicated that recognition of unaltered information was higher in the enactment condition than the auditory or visual conditions and that this effect persisted over time. Misinformation acceptance for the immediate recognition test was lowest in the auditory condition but this advantage disappeared over time. Modality congruence of the auditory condition with the modality in which misinformation was presented and different retrieval processes underlying recognition of altered and unaltered information may explain these findings.

• Nonsymbolic numerical magnitude comparison: Reliability and validity of different task variants and outcome measures, and their relationship to arithmetic achievement in adults.

  Authors: Gavin R Price, Daniel Palmer, Christian Battista, Daniel Ansari

  Acta psychologica. 140(1):50-57.

  The numerical ratio effect (NRE) and the Weber fraction (w) are common metrics of the precision of the approximate numbers sense (ANS), a cognitive mechanism suggested to play a role in theThe numerical ratio effect (NRE) and the Weber fraction (w) are common metrics of the precision of the approximate numbers sense (ANS), a cognitive mechanism suggested to play a role in the development of numerical and arithmetic skills. The task most commonly used to measure the precision of the ANS is the numerical comparison task. Multiple variants of this task have been employed yet it is currently unclear how these affect metrics of ANS acuity, and how these relate to arithmetic achievement. The present study investigates the reliability, validity and relationship to standardized measures of arithmetic fluency of the NRE and w elicited by three variants of the nonsymbolic number comparison task. Results reveal that the strengths of the NRE and w differ between task variants. Moreover, the reliability and validity of the reaction time NRE and the w were generally significant across task variants, although reliability was stronger for w. None of the task variants revealed a correlation between ANS metrics and arithmetic fluency in adults. These results reveal important consistencies across nonsymbolic number comparison tasks, indicating a shared cognitive foundation. However, the relationship between ANS acuity and arithmetic performance remains unclear.

• Reinstatement of fear in humans: Autonomic and experiential responses in a differential conditioning paradigm.

  Authors: Sandra Kull, Birgit H Müller, Jens Blechert, Frank H Wilhelm, Tanja Michael

  Acta psychologica. 140(1):43-49.

  The present study investigated reinstatement of fear in humans using an aversive differential conditioning paradigm. Two neutral human face pictures were presented during habituation, acquisition,The present study investigated reinstatement of fear in humans using an aversive differential conditioning paradigm. Two neutral human face pictures were presented during habituation, acquisition, extinction, and postreinstatement phases. One picture served as a conditioned stimulus (CS) reinforced by an unconditioned stimulus (US) in the form of electrical stimulation (CS+) and the second picture as a control stimulus that was never reinforced (CS-). The prediction that in a reinstatement manipulation a previously extinguished fear response in humans can be reinstated in a reinstatement group by the mere presentation of three unpredicted electrical stimulations (USs) was tested. Participants in the control group were not exposed to unpredicted USs and no reinstatement effect was expected. Outcome measures included subjective US expectancy ratings and skin conductance responses. Results showed non-selective return of the fear response due to fear recovery associated with both CSs (CS+/CS-) in the reinstatement group. Unexpected fear recovery was observed for both CSs (CS+/CS-) in control participants. Results are discussed with respect to context conditioning, fear generalisation, and anxiety-related cognitive mechanisms underlying fear recovery after extinction.

• Video game practice optimizes executive control skills in dual-task and task switching situations.

  Authors: Tilo Strobach, Peter A Frensch, Torsten Schubert

  Acta psychologica. 140(1):13-24.

  We examined the relation of action video game practice and the optimization of executive control skills that are needed to coordinate two different tasks. As action video games are similar to realWe examined the relation of action video game practice and the optimization of executive control skills that are needed to coordinate two different tasks. As action video games are similar to real life situations and complex in nature, and include numerous concurrent actions, they may generate an ideal environment for practicing these skills (Green & Bavelier, 2008). For two types of experimental paradigms, dual-task and task switching respectively; we obtained performance advantages for experienced video gamers compared to non-gamers in situations in which two different tasks were processed simultaneously or sequentially. This advantage was absent in single-task situations. These findings indicate optimized executive control skills in video gamers. Similar findings in non-gamers after 15h of action video game practice when compared to non-gamers with practice on a puzzle game clarified the causal relation between video game practice and the optimization of executive control skills.

• What can the same-different task tell us about the development of magnitude representations?

  Authors: Emmy Defever, Delphine Sasanguie, Mieke Vandewaetere, Bert Reynvoet

  Acta psychologica. 140(1):35-42.

  We examined the development of magnitude representations in children (Exp 1: kindergartners, first-, second- and sixth graders, Exp 2: kindergartners, first-, second- and third graders) using aWe examined the development of magnitude representations in children (Exp 1: kindergartners, first-, second- and sixth graders, Exp 2: kindergartners, first-, second- and third graders) using a numerical same-different task with symbolic (i.e. digits) and non-symbolic (i.e. arrays of dots) stimuli. We investigated whether judgments in a same-different task with digits are based upon the numerical value or upon the physical similarity of the digits. In addition, we investigated whether the numerical distance effect decreases with increasing age. Finally, we examined whether the performance in this task is related to general mathematics achievement. Our results reveal that a same-different task with digits is not an appropriate task to study magnitude representations, because already late kindergarteners base their responses on the physical similarity instead of the numerical value of the digits. When decisions cannot be made on the basis of physical similarity, a similar numerical distance effect is present over all age groups. This suggests that the magnitude representation is stable from late kindergarten onwards. The size of the numerical distance effect was not related to mathematical achievement. However, children with a poorer mathematics achievement score seemed to have more difficulties to link a symbol with its corresponding magnitude.

• The effect of landmarks in human path integration.

  Authors: Xiaoang Wan, Ranxiao Frances Wang, James A Crowell

  Acta psychologica. 140(1):7-12.

  The effect of landmarks in human path integration was investigated using virtual hallway-mazes. Participants traveled along random 5-segment paths either with or without distinctive landmarks at someThe effect of landmarks in human path integration was investigated using virtual hallway-mazes. Participants traveled along random 5-segment paths either with or without distinctive landmarks at some segment intersections. They were required to directly return to the origin or to one of the landmark locations from the end of the path. Results showed that knowledge of the return targets prior to the outbound trip significantly reduced RTs to both the origin and the landmarks. Moreover, RTs in the return-to-origin trials were longer with landmarks present than without landmarks. This effect was eliminated when the return target was given prior to the trip. These results suggest that processing of the origin and the landmarks interfere with each other. However this interference is not obligatory and can be eliminated or reduced by prior knowledge about the target. The influences of landmarks on path integration and spatial updating were discussed.

• The premotor theory of attention as an account for the Simon effect.

  Authors: Rob H J Van der Lubbe, Elger L Abrahamse, Elian De Kleine

  Acta psychologica. 140(1):25-34.

  The Simon effect refers to the phenomenon that responses are faster when the irrelevant location of a stimulus corresponds with the response location than when these locations do not correspond. InThe Simon effect refers to the phenomenon that responses are faster when the irrelevant location of a stimulus corresponds with the response location than when these locations do not correspond. In the current paper we examined the viability of an updated version of the premotor theory of attention (PMTA) as an account for the Simon effect. Two predictions were evaluated. First, in the case of focused attention at the relevant target position a strong reduction of the Simon effect should be observed as the Simon effect according to PMTA crucially depends on attentional orienting. Secondly, if attention is directed towards a location then this orienting by itself should already be sufficient for producing a Simon effect, as stimulus presence is not required. Our data confirmed these predictions thereby supporting the relevance of the PMTA for the Simon effect.

• Sex differences in components of imagined perspective transformation.

  Authors: Mark R Gardner, Ingrid Sorhus, Caroline J Edmonds, Rosalind Potts

  Acta psychologica. 140(1):1-6.

  Little research to date has examined whether sex differences in spatial ability extend to the mental self rotation involved in taking on a third party perspective. This question was addressed in theLittle research to date has examined whether sex differences in spatial ability extend to the mental self rotation involved in taking on a third party perspective. This question was addressed in the present study by assessing components of imagined perspective transformations in twenty men and twenty women. Participants made speeded left-right judgements about the hand in which an object was held by front- and back- facing schematic human figures in an "own body transformation task." Response times were longer when the figure did not share the same spatial orientation as the participant, and were substantially longer than those made for a control task requiring left-right judgements about the same stimuli from the participant's own point of view. A sex difference in imagined perspective transformation favouring males was found to be restricted to the speed of imagined self rotation, and was not observed for components indexing readiness to take a third party point of view, nor in left-right confusion. These findings indicate that the range of spatial abilities for which a sex difference has been established should be extended to include imagined perspective transformations. They also suggest that imagined perspective transformations may not draw upon those empathic social-emotional perspective taking processes for which females show an advantage.

• Decisions beyond boundaries: When more information is processed faster than less.

  Authors: Andreas Glöckner, Tilmann Betsch

  Acta psychologica. 139(3):532-42.

  Bounded rationality models usually converge in claiming that decision time and the amount of computational steps needed to come to a decision are positively correlated. The empirical evidence forBounded rationality models usually converge in claiming that decision time and the amount of computational steps needed to come to a decision are positively correlated. The empirical evidence for this claim is, however, equivocal. We conducted a study that tests this claim by adding and omitting information. We demonstrate that even an increase in information amount can yield a decrease in decision time if the added information increases coherence in the information set. Rather than being influenced by amount of information, decision time systematically increased with decreasing coherence. The results are discussed with reference to a parallel constraint satisfaction approach to decision making, which assumes that information integration is operated in an automatic, holistic manner.

• The interaction between duration, velocity and repetitive auditory stimulation.

  Authors: Alexis D J Makin, Ellen Poliakoff, Joe Dillon, Aimee Perrin, Thomas Mullet, Luke A Jones

  Acta psychologica. 139(3):524-31.

  Repetitive auditory stimulation (with click trains) and visual velocity signals both have intriguing effects on the subjective passage of time. Previous studies have established that priorRepetitive auditory stimulation (with click trains) and visual velocity signals both have intriguing effects on the subjective passage of time. Previous studies have established that prior presentation of auditory clicks increases the subjective duration of subsequent sensory input, and that faster moving stimuli are also judged to have been presented for longer (the time dilation effect). However, the effect of clicks on velocity estimation is unknown, and the nature of the time dilation effect remains ambiguous. Here were present a series of five experiments to explore these phenomena in more detail. Participants viewed a rightward moving grating which traveled at velocities ranging from 5 to 15°/s and which lasted for durations of 500 to 1500ms. Gratings were preceded by clicks, silence or white noise. It was found that both clicks and higher velocities increased subjective duration. It was also found that the time dilation effect was a constant proportion of stimulus duration. This implies that faster velocity increases the rate of the pacemaker component of the internal clock. Conversely, clicks increased subjective velocity, but the magnitude of this effect was not proportional to actual velocity. Through considerations of these results, we conclude that clicks independently affect velocity and duration representations.

• Mapping the timecourse of goal-directed attention to location and colour in human vision.

  Authors: Rachel C Adams, Christopher D Chambers

  Acta psychologica. 139(3):515-23.

  Goal-directed attention prioritises perception of task-relevant stimuli according to location, features, or onset time. In this study we compared the behavioural timecourse of goal-directed selectionGoal-directed attention prioritises perception of task-relevant stimuli according to location, features, or onset time. In this study we compared the behavioural timecourse of goal-directed selection to locations and colours by varying the stimulus-onset asynchrony (SOA) between cue and target in a strategic cueing paradigm. Participants reported the presence or absence of a target following prior information regarding its location or colour. Results revealed that preparatory selection by colour is more effective at enhancing perceptual sensitivity than selection by location, even though both types of cue provided equivalent overall information. More detailed analysis revealed that this advantage arose due a limitation of spatial attention in maintaining a sufficiently broad focus (>2°) for target detection across multiple stimuli. In contrast, when target stimuli fell within 2° of the spatial attention spotlight, the strategic advantages and speed of spatial and colour attention were equated. Our findings are consistent with the conclusion that, under spatially optimal conditions, prior spatial and colour information are equally proficient at guiding top-down selection. When spatial locations are ambiguous, however, colour-based selection is the more efficient mechanism.

• Antagonistic modulatory influences of negative affect on cognitive control: Reduced and enhanced interference resolution capability after the induction of fear and sadness.

  Authors: Tobias Melcher, Katrin Obst, Andreas Mann, Christine Paulus, Oliver Gruber

  Acta psychologica. 139(3):507-14.

  The present behavioral study investigated the influence of negative affect on the neural mechanisms of cognitive control. We expected to find evidence for an antagonistic modulation of cognition byThe present behavioral study investigated the influence of negative affect on the neural mechanisms of cognitive control. We expected to find evidence for an antagonistic modulation of cognition by threat-relevant and threat-irrelevant negative affect (i.e. fear and sadness) that should promote bottom-up monitoring and top-down selection, respectively. Subjects performed one of three conflict tasks (Stroop, Flanker, or Simon) that tap distinct control mechanisms of conflict resolution, comprising specific attentional and motor control processes. On each task trial, target stimuli were preceded by a face stimulus exhibiting a fearful, sad, or neutral expression, providing three affect conditions. Our data provides strong evidence for substantially increased selection (attentional and motor selection) after priming of threat-irrelevant negative affect (sadness). Deviating from the results of previous studies, our analysis did not consistently yield increased monitoring after fear priming. We discuss these findings with respect to the effectiveness of different experimental affect priming procedures (i.e. stimuli) and the role of the task context, among others.

• An inhibition effect in the temporal constrains of attentional selection: The Backward Blink.

  Authors: Stefano Sdoia, Fabio Ferlazzo

  Acta psychologica. 139(3):501-6.

  The study aims at investigating the dynamics of visual information processing during sequential control of attentional selection. By combining two different traditional paradigms we show for theThe study aims at investigating the dynamics of visual information processing during sequential control of attentional selection. By combining two different traditional paradigms we show for the first time that during rapid selection of visual targets, encoding of a new target stimulus is facilitated by suppression of the preceding relevant stimulus category (Backward Blink; BB). Such inhibition would operate to reduce interference from previously stored information, in order to facilitate the instantiation of a new attentional episode. Results suggest that the same underlying inhibitory mechanism might contribute to two different attentional effects, specifically, the switch cost and the Attentional Blink, suggesting a general inhibitory mechanism of attentional control, with broad implications for understanding how the brain perceives any task-relevant stimulus.

• Asymmetric switch-costs and ERPs reveal facial identity dominance over expression.

  Authors: Arnaud Leleu, Stéphanie Caharel, Julie Carré, Benoît Montalan, Aïda Afrani-Jones, Alain Vom Hofe, Heidi Charvin, Robert Lalonde, Mohamed Rebaï

  Acta psychologica. 139(3):492-500.

  Previous studies on face processing have revealed an asymmetric overlap between identity and expression, as identity is processed irrespective of expression while expression processing partly dependsPrevious studies on face processing have revealed an asymmetric overlap between identity and expression, as identity is processed irrespective of expression while expression processing partly depends on identity. To investigate whether this relative interaction is caused by dominance of identity over expression, participants performed familiarity and expression judgments during task switching. This paradigm reveals task-set dominance with a paradoxical asymmetric switch-cost (i.e., greater difference between switch and repeat trials when switching toward the dominant task). Event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded to find the neural signature of the asymmetric cost. As expected, greater switch-cost was shown in the familiarity task with respect to response times, indicating its dominance over the expression task. Moreover, a left-sided ERP correlate of this effect was observed at the level of the frontal N2 component, interpreted as an index of modulations in endogenous executive control. Altogether, these results confirm the overlap between identity and expression during face processing and further indicate their relative dominance.

• Hidden conflicts: Explanations make inconsistencies harder to detect.

  Authors: Sangeet S Khemlani, P N Johnson-Laird

  Acta psychologica. 139(3):486-91.

  A rational response to an inconsistent set of propositions is to revise it in a minimal way to restore consistency. A more important psychological goal is usually to create an explanation thatA rational response to an inconsistent set of propositions is to revise it in a minimal way to restore consistency. A more important psychological goal is usually to create an explanation that resolves the inconsistency. We report five studies showing that once individuals have done so, they find inconsistencies harder to detect. Experiment 1 established the effect when participants explained inconsistencies, and Experiment 2 eliminated the possibility that the effect was a result of demand characteristics. Experiments 3a and 3b replicated the result, and showed that it did not occur in control groups that evaluated (or justified) which events in the pairs of assertions were more surprising. Experiment 4 replicated the previous findings, but the participants carried out all the conditions acting as their own controls. In all five studies, control conditions established that participants were able to detect comparable inconsistencies. Their explanations led them to re-interpret the generalizations as holding by default, and so they were less likely to treat the pairs of assertions as inconsistent. Explanations can accordingly undo the devastating consequences of logical inconsistencies, but at the cost of a subsequent failure to detect them.

• Response preparation in Parkinson's disease: Automatic vs. controlled processing.

  Authors: Jos J Adam, Bart Scholtissen, Paloma Marí-Beffa

  Acta psychologica. 139(3):465-70.

  Using a finger cuing paradigm, we investigated response preparation in Parkinson's disease (PD). The central question was whether PD individuals are differentially affected by preparatory cues thatUsing a finger cuing paradigm, we investigated response preparation in Parkinson's disease (PD). The central question was whether PD individuals are differentially affected by preparatory cues that specify a more automatic response set configuration (that induces within-hand preparation) as opposed to a more controlled one (that induces between-hands preparation). Reaction times (RTs) and error rates were measured in 20 non-demented individuals with PD and 20 healthy control participants with a long and short preparation interval (500ms and 2000ms). RT benefits and/or costs were measured for cues indicating a within- and between-hands motor preparatory set. Overall, RTs were significantly longer, and errors more frequent, for PD participants than for control participants. More importantly, in comparison with control subjects, PD individuals showed a significant deficit in between-hands preparation but not in within-hand preparation. Furthermore, longer preparation intervals slowed down cued RTs of the control participants, but not those of the PD individuals. Together, these findings suggest that whereas automatic response preparation processes are spared in PD, controlled response preparation processes operate at a slower rate and/or are delayed in time.

• Spatial and temporal task characteristics as stress: A test of the dynamic adaptability theory of stress, workload, and performance.

  Authors: James L Szalma, Grace W L Teo

  Acta psychologica. 139(3):471-85.

  The goal for this study was to test assertions of the dynamic adaptability theory of stress, which proposes two fundamental task dimensions, information rate (temporal properties of a task) andThe goal for this study was to test assertions of the dynamic adaptability theory of stress, which proposes two fundamental task dimensions, information rate (temporal properties of a task) and information structure (spatial properties of a task). The theory predicts adaptive stability across stress magnitudes, with progressive and precipitous changes in adaptive response manifesting first as increases in perceived workload and stress and then as performance failure. Information structure was manipulated by varying the number of displays to be monitored (1, 2, 4 or 8 displays). Information rate was manipulated by varying stimulus presentation rate (8, 12, 16, or 20events/min). A signal detection task was used in which critical signals were pairs of digits that differed by 0 or 1. Performance accuracy declined and workload and stress increased as a function of increased task demand, with a precipitous decline in accuracy at the highest demand levels. However, the form of performance change as well as the pattern of relationships between speed and accuracy and between performance and workload/stress indicates that some aspects of the theory need revision. Implications of the results for the theory and for future research are discussed.

• Are feeling-of-knowing and judgment-of-learning different? Evidence from older adults.

  Authors: Celine Souchay, Michel Isingrini

  Acta psychologica. 139(3):458-64.

  This study aims to assess age differences between Judgments-of-learning (JOLs) and Feeling-of-knowing (FOKs) as they are typically studied. The novel contribution of the present study is a comparisonThis study aims to assess age differences between Judgments-of-learning (JOLs) and Feeling-of-knowing (FOKs) as they are typically studied. The novel contribution of the present study is a comparison between these two metacognitive judgments in a within subject design. Young and older adults were tested on their JOL accuracy and were asked to predict future recall during learning. All participants were also asked to predict future recognition of unrecalled items (FOK judgments). Results showed that although older adults had similar low levels of memory performance in the JOL task and in the FOK task, metacognitive impairments were only found on the resolution of FOKs. Furthermore, an analysis of covariance showed that age differences on memory performance explained the age effect observed on the FOK, thus supporting the memory constraint hypothesis (Hertzog et al., 2010). Results are discussed in relation to contemporary models of memory.

• When going the right way is hard to do: Distinct phases of action compatibility in spatial knowledge development.

  Authors: Qi Wang, Holly A Taylor, Tad T Brunyé

  Acta psychologica. 139(3):449-57.

  The present study explores spatial knowledge development using online response measures available in mouse tracking. Online measures can reveal cognitive processing masked in post-processingThe present study explores spatial knowledge development using online response measures available in mouse tracking. Online measures can reveal cognitive processing masked in post-processing measures. In the study, participants verified spatial descriptions by moving the mouse to a YES or NO button. Mouse tracking software (Freeman & Ambady, 2010) recorded mouse trajectories. Results demonstrated action-compatibility effects (ACE), differing as a function of spatial knowledge development. For well-developed spatial knowledge, the ACE reflected the physical spatial relationship (e.g. response button on right, but building to the left). In terms of temporal dynamics, this effect occurred later in the response. For less-developed knowledge, the spatial term drove the ACE (e.g., response button on right, but description used term left). In this case, the ACE was immediate and continuous. As would be consistent with learning, ACEs were observed more probably with proximal than distant locations. From these results, we infer that perceptuo-motor associations build with time and experience and can play an integral role in retrieval from well-developed spatial representations.

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